This thesis sets out to investigate the hypothesis that geographic
information systems (GIS), which are still primarily ensconced in the
domains of the workplace and higher education, have a role in education at
the secondary school level. It is easy to surmise various ways in which GIS
might invigorate instruction, provide innovative content delivery, increase
student spatial perception and analysis skills, and expose students to one
of the newer tools of research and management. Despite the ease at which
those familiar with GIS are able to imagine its potential benefits to the
schools, there is a need to establish a more solid basis for these
speculations. That task is the crux of this research effort.
In order to provide a foundation for this research, a pilot study including
a one week investigative workshop was conducted. These early activities
served as the crucible for identifying the key questions to address in this
exploratory thesis. The positive findings of the workshop led to an
expansion in the scope and duration of the research both of which provide a
more solid basis for the assertions advanced and future research topics
identified. Since this thesis research extended into relatively uncharted
territory -- the use of the advanced GIS software and theoretical
constructs in the pre-collegiate classroom -- the thesis is necessarily
broad, but attempts to lay a solid foundation for future research efforts.
Before describing the research strategy employed, a quick look into the
educational and technological situation and pertinent background information
for this research are provided below. A key to understanding the context
and development pattern of this research is the relationship between it and
the endeavors of the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
(NCGIA). This linkage is also clarified below.
The Situation
Great transformations are occurring in the way the United States conducts
its business, goes about daily living, and educates its youth. As the nation
speeds ahead towards a new millennium, computer technology is becoming an
integral part of nearly every activity in the workplace, the home, and the
schools. There is a nagging sense that despite this great influx of
technology, we will not have a sufficiently educated workforce to make use
of its potential. With a realization that the preeminent role of the United
States in the community of nations may be slipping, especially with regards
to education, there has been a call by the federal and state governments
for an America 2000 initiative to raise student performance in key
disciplines to a level comparable or higher than that of the other
developed nations (Brand, 1992).
As teachers attempt to motivate students to higher levels of achievement ,
they will also have the responsibility to help them be technologically
literate. Some may question the role of technology in education and in
society in general, citing information overload and inappropriate
applications as symptoms of over-reliance on technological innovations.
Although there may be validity in some of these arguments , it is also
apparent that greater access to information through modern technologies may
be closely linked to increased political and economic power. At some level
teachers, serving students all across the economic and ethnic spectra,
will need to high light the use of these technologies to access and create
information in order to help level the playing field. It may be true that a
monocular focus on these technologies in the classroom may be imbalanced,
since not all aspects of learning may be best served by them. Despite these
reservations, to avoid including the technologies where appropriate in
instruction does not serve the students best interest.
Although the challenges of this type of technology inclusive modern
education may seem insurmountable and the status quo of the schools may not
seem very well adapted to the incorporation of new techniques and
technologies, there are many trends that will undeniably affect the
schools. One of these is the development and promotion of multimedia
technology as an aid to instruction. This integration of video, computers,
laser disks, hypertext-guided lessons, and other digital media is gaining
momentum and will have a major impact on the teaching practice at all
levels. Another player in this new era of learning will be the high-tech
electronic highway network being promoted by the Clinton Administration and
articulated by Vice President Al Gore. Although also designed to serve
government and business, this fiber-optic and computer infrastructure will
have great potential for educational use by providing teachers and students
with ready access to a wealth of information (Government Technology, 1993).
Although they are not new to the classroom, computers will likely begin to
have a major impact on instruction as they continue to evolve, as
educational software is developed, and as educators become proficient in
their use for instruction. One type of software that may have a significant
impact on the classroom of the future is geographic information systems.
Traditionally GIS software, hardware, and methodology had been confined to
realms such as city planning and infrastructure management. More recently,
with the introduction of more user-friendly GIS software and
hardware/software configurations that are an order of magnitude cheaper than
their recent predecessors, GIS has gained wide use in variety of professions
and activities. GIS concepts and use are taught in a diverse set of
environments from within established university programs such as geography,
surveying engineering, and landscape architecture and short-term university
extension classes to the commercial world where they are part of high-priced
seminars for professionals and specific software training workshops put on
by the GIS software companies. Another impact GIS is beginning to have in
the educational arena, beyond its status as a new subject to be taught, is
as a tool for teaching a variety of topics.
GIS have become established in many universities and colleges around the
world, but they are only beginning to make an impact on the pre-collegiate
level. As the schools of the nation attempt to meet the demand for students
that perform at world-class levels and that are technologically literate,
it seems appropriate to examine the role that GIS software and concepts may
serve. This thesis represents an investigation of the relationship of GIS to
the educational mission of the secondary schools. This thesis topic might
be investigated from the perspective of either an educator or a geographer.
The approach of an educational researcher would emphasize the cognitive and
pedagogical aspects of GIS activities. This thesis, however, focuses
primarily on the co ntent and impl ementation issues of greater interest to
the geographer or GIS professional. These issues include identifying a core
of GIS content appropriate for the schools, GIS software functionality
useful for teachers, and ways in which the GIS professional world can
support the secondary schools.
Much of the information related to this thesis was collected in conjunction
with a pilot study by the NCGIA Secondary Education Project (SEP) . A key
component of this study was a GIS in the Schools workshop for high school
teachers put on by the NCGIA in the summer of 1992. The findings of the
workshop and remaining components of a pilot study are found in chapter one.
The suggestions of teachers during the pilot study led to an expansion of
the SEP which was coupled with the detailed look at issues foundational to
the success of GIS in the schools found in this thesis. The key issues are
explicated in chapters two, three, and four. A final chapter outlines the
complete findings of the research effort, suggests action items for
successful implementation of GIS in the schools, and identifies topics for
additional research.
BACKGROUND Geographic Information Systems
Geographic information systems are an outgrowth of the computer revolution,
as automated versions of the age-old activity of analyzing our surroundings.
Early explorers recorded images of their environment in journals and on
crude maps; gradually, the representation of spatial data became
increasingly sophisticated and abstract. However, for the most part these
records were static, and limited in their representation of space, time, and
theme. The information contained was more suited to general reference than
analysis and decision making. Modern computer technology has removed these
limitations. With the advent of powerful personal computers, geographical
data can now be manipulated and analyzed by a broad cross section of
individuals, both specialist and novice.
Superficially, a GIS is often perceived as a container of digital maps, but
underlying this is a much more powerful ability to display and analyze the
relationships between spatially distributed phenomena. Burrough describes
GIS as a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transforming, and displaying spatial data from the real world for a
particular set of purposes (Burrough, 1986, p6). These purposes range from
military planning to environmental education and from resource management to
political redistricting. GIS is an especially useful tool in planning:
Cities, counties, and utilities worldwide are turning to computerized
geographic information systems to automate everything from simple mapping
functions to complex land-use analysis, site selection, and network modeling
requirements. GIS has not only created a new dimension in map-making. It
has opened new frontiers in the ability to make more sound, more enlightened
decisions about the very foundation of how we plan and manage our cities,
natural resources, land holdings, and utility distribution systems
(Smyrnew, 1990, p105).
GIS provides a platform in which to combine spatial data with a variety of
other information such as socioeconomic surveys, scientific field and lab
studies, and satellite imagery. This spatial perspective can be a powerful
source of insight and a powerful influence on the decision-making process (a picture is worth a thousand words ).
GIS can be used for many purposes. Recent issues of the trade journals Geo
Info Systems and GIS World have included articles on diverse applications such as:
Mapping soil and ground water contamination (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency);
Assessment of timber resources and lightning strike distribution in order to
allocated fire fighting resources in the forests (U.S. Forest Service and
private forestry companies);
Demography and marketing, with data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census;
Analysis of damage and recovery efforts following the Southern California
fires in the fall of 1993;
The role of geographic information and GIS in the Gulf War;
GIS as a tool for land management and interaction with land owners;
Redistricting following the 1990 Census, and the use of GIS to implement
diversity objectives; and,
The use of GIS in emergency response and damage assessment following
Hurricanes Hugo and Andrew and more recently for the Midwest floods.
These examples demonstrate how some GIS applications are becoming more
apparent to the general public. As the nature of decision making evolves to
include this technological innovation, its impact on our daily lives is
increasingly evident.
The National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
As noted above, this thesis research was closely linked to educational
activities of the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis.
The NCGIA was established by the National Science Foundation in August 1988
as a consortium of the Universit y of California at Santa Barbara, the State
University of New York at Buffalo, and the University of Maine at Orono. In
addition to basic research in GIS, the Center s mission included a
concentrated effort to encourage GIS education. This focus on GIS education
is intended to help meet the high demand for individuals educated in
geographic information analysis and the use, design, and application of
geographic information systems.
When the Center was created, few resources existed for teaching GIS. One of
NCGIA s first projects was the creation of a Core Curriculum in GIS, a
year-long series of foundational courses in GIS for upper-division
undergraduates and graduate students. More than 35 experts from the GIS
community helped develop the curriculum, which is presently used in many educational institutions as the base for their GIS courses.
Additional GIS education resources also have been created. To support the
hands-on work necessary for a comprehensive GIS education, NCGIA has
developed two sets of GIS lab exercises. A GIS lab resources guide has been
compiled and a set of case studies on the development of facilities for lab
work has been completed. A recent addition to NCGIA GIS education materials
is a report, complied with help from the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS), listing more than 100 videos on GIS and related topics.
In addition to efforts geared to colleges and universities, the center began
to focus on the pre-collegiate educational levels with the primary thrust
being the secondary school level. This resulted in a Secondary Education
Project which serves both as a formalization of and support structure for
this research.
The Secondary Education Project
The Secondary Education Project (SEP) began in 1991 as an extension of the
NCGIA Educational Program. The initial objectives were:
to investigate appropriate roles for GIS software and concepts in the secondary school curriculum;
to promote GIS within the secondary school community in the United States; and,
to develop NCGIA as a node connecting individuals in secondary education, higher education, government, and the business community who are involved with or interested in various GIS-related efforts for the secondary schools.
Activities to date include initial and extended contacts with a host of
individuals and institutions interested in GIS for the schools and who, in
some cases, have developed actual GIS activities for the schools. These
contacts are kept abreast of the SEP and other activities for GIS in the
schools through a biannual progress report. The SEP is identifying
curriculum resources and software that are appropriate to GIS activities for the schools. As mentioned earlier, an important early activity was to
hold a pilot study featuring a workshop that introduced a group of secondary
school teachers to GIS and solicited important feedback from them. Based on
the results of the workshop and the initial investigations and contacts,
SEP moved into a second stage, which has included additional workshops for
secondary school teachers and a concentrated effort to develop materials to
support the use of GIS in the schools.
All of the SEP activities provide a context for this thesis research. In
fact, somewhat of a symbiotic relationship exists between the two. The
original thesis proposal outlined a simple investigation of the use of GIS
to achieve educational objectives in the secondary schools. The questions
raised in the initial stages of the thesis research meshed with a desire by
the NCGIA to probe the role of GIS in pre-collegiate education. The NCGIA
was capable of supporting a much more thorough investigation, thus the
simple research question of the thesis metamorphosed into the broad
multi-year SEP. As the SEP continued and expanded, it fed increasing amounts
of information to this thesis. Although it may have diffused the focus of
the original question, the SEP did allow for much greater extent of the
research, potentially increasing its value as a germinator of additional,
more focussed research. The following contents reflect an expansion of the
original thesis, how will a group of teachers perceive GIS as a potential
component of their program , to a broader study of the role of GIS in
secondary education.
Since this thesis was developed in tandem with the NCGIA Secondary Education
Project, it reflects the structure of that project. It is more a project
findings report than problem analysis, thus may follow a format different
from that of the typical scientific research thesis. Although there is a
hypothesis, it primarily serves as the guide for project activities, rather
than the focus of formal testing. The first chapter reflects the initial
conclusions reached on the basis of the information gathered in the pilot
study. The pilot study clarified the need to explore three areas in greater
detail: the potential for geography in th e schools to serve as a key
discipline supporting GIS activities, the likelihood that the technological
infrastructure in the schools and teacher comfort with computer-based
instruction would enable successful use of GIS, and the extent of and
lessons to be learned from existing GIS activities in the schools. These
explorations are found in chapters two, three, and four respectively.
Chapter five brings together the findings of entire research project and
points to avenues of future research related to GIS use in the schools.