Technology in the Schools: Computers and GIS
As we have seen in Chapter 1, teachers in various disciplines see GIS as having great potential for the enhancement and extension of existing curriculum. One of the most promising disciplines for GIS-aided instruction in the schools, geography, is attempting a comeback as is documented in Chapter 2. Another important factor for effective use of actual GIS software in the schools is the technological infrastructure that is supported in the schools. The pilot study for this thesis research indicated that the success of many GIS activities might hinge on the availability of computational resources in the schools and the preparation of teachers to use them.
Therefore, this chapter explores the state of technology in the schools especially with regards to the particular needs of GIS software. The chapter first explores the range of technology used in the schools then narrows down to the use of computers in geography. Since GIS is part of a suite of computer software used in geography, its place among those geography software packages is examined as part of the section on computer use in geography instruction. A final section brings these discussions together in a discussion of the actual use of GIS technology in the schools.
Technology in the Schools
Classrooms around the nation are beginning to employ a wide range of new technologies in the classroom, many of which are computer-based. It is useful in a consideration of the role of GIS in the classroom to first review the role of these technologies. Assessing the attitudes towards technology in general might help in the design of appropriate GIS activities. Following the overview of technology in the schools, the use of specific technologies, especially those relevant to geography instruction and GIS, will be examined. A catchall term for many of these newer technologies in the schools is multimedia which includes interactive video, hypermedia, and even electronic atlases.
Technology
Technology can be an elusive term. Many individuals view technology mainly as industrial artifacts; they are seen as the products and processes that make our world operate. One geography educator identified technology as "any object used by mankind to enhance his/her physical capabilities" and specific to geography as "the tools used by geographers (students, scientists) to better observe the earth or measure natural or human actions; and technology impacts on the environment, thus are the object of these geographers' study." (Gerber, 1992, p285) Although a relatively narrow view of technology, it actually conceptually frames much of the later discussion in this chapter on the use of modern, often electronic technological artifacts in the geography classroom. This definition of technology also nicely fits GIS.
Before moving into a discussion of these technological artifacts, it is worth noting that technology can be viewed in a much more holistic way that includes not only the objects and processes that we identify as technology but also the organizational structures that accompany any use of these "technologies." These organizational structures include relationships between components, management strategies, power patterns, networks, and even interpersonal communication skills. This form of technology is often referred to as "soft" as opposed to the "hard" objects and processes. (Gerber, 1992) For example, a city government using GIS may incorporate many of the "soft" technological innovations mentioned above in their complete GIS enterprise. Many of these relate to management structures for distributed databases, the functioning of the various players in a collaborative effort, and other organizational issues that are especially prevalent in any large undertaking.
The discussion of technology in the curriculum rarely incorporates its effect on the culture. This impact on culture may be seen as one of the important elements of "soft" technology. Young reminds those pushing technology to engage in reflection on the societal effects of our focus on technology education. (Young, 1991) This might encourage those who are proposing the incorporation of GIS software and concepts in the educational enterprise to think twice. Are we presenting a false panacea that will create an over-confident culture? Will "necessary" access to spatial and accompanying attribute (e.g., demographic) data erode the strength of privacy as legal concept in our culture? What other cultural changes will be created by a GIS literate and perhaps dependent populace?
On a less abstract level, a witness to an Australian government inquiry on the potential for satellite technology to impact education highlights some of the "soft" issues surrounding "hard" technology in the following testimony: "To interface adequately with technology, teachers, like many other groups in society, require a number of facilitating factors to exist. These factors include an enthusiasm to use technology, adequate pre-service and in-service education, informed and supportive specialist advisory staff, adequate and compatible hardware, and educational software that is not only technologically compatible, but compatible with teachers' educational philosophies." (Gerber, 1992, p283) This statement could be equally applied to various hard technologies in the schools especially computers and GIS.
For GIS activities, it appears that some of these "soft" technological supports will be easily found while others may take more concerted efforts of the promoters. The NCGIA workshop showed that demonstrations of GIS capabilities and existing applications were sufficient to generate enthusiasm in teachers; however, for teachers to use this technology in their work environment, they will need to be supported by in-services (such as the NCGIA workshop) and by GIS professionals (with a knack for communicating to laypeople.) Ideally over the next few years, teacher training programs will not only begin to include pre-service training in geography but also in the use of GIS software and concepts which will lead to the use of GIS in the future classrooms of these student teachers.
Gerber has identified three main impacts technology might have on geography instruction at the secondary level. These are: "1. a means for improving data-gathering in making thorough investigations, 2. a facilitator in the development of skills, and 3. an additional explanation for spatial patterns and people-environment relationships." (Gerber, 1992, p284) Although this list is not exhaustive and wasn't created specifically with GIS in mind, each of these impacts can be clearly linked to the potentials inherent in an educational use of GIS. The first impact expressed in a GIS context may be seen as the import, storage, and classification of data collected in the field (perhaps with a GPS system) in a GIS software package. Two types of skills might be developed with GIS. One is the use of geographic data sets in a digital environment. The other is the skillful association and analysis of the relationships between datasets and elements within each data set. The last impact, the use of GIS to improve student perception of the spatial characteristics of our world, is a latent capability of GIS which is waiting for development.
Attitudes Towards Technology
In a discussion of technology use in the geography education, it is important to note the high correlation between attitude and the success rate of that technology as an educational tool. "Positive attitudes toward technology can produce a widespread use of different technologies; negative attitudes can have the opposite effect." (Gerber, 1992, p284) Gerber suggests that these attitudes tend to follow an individual through life. While it may be true that basic attitudes towards technological innovations often do stick with an individual, there can be cathartic or at least mildly revelatory interactions with technology that can reverse the individual's perspective, both from against to in favor and vice versa. In the case of GIS, a demonstration of versatility and dramatics such as animated 3-D sequences might turn the ardent opponent into a fan. On the other hand, as has been the case in many agencies that rushed to incorporate a GIS in their activities, the so-called power of the GIS can end up as major frustrater due to the complexity, difficulty building adequate databases for many tasks, and the other problems that arise with an over-reliance on fallible computer hardware and support structures.
To increase optimism about technology, formal and informal learning experiences need to be adjusted to accommodate more effective uses of both "hard" and "soft" technologies. Initial negative experiences with GIS software resulting from rush to expose teachers to the "newest" technology could actually prove to be more detrimental in the long run over a more metered approach of introducing GIS. This approach may begin with simple demonstrations of GIS applications, an overview of the fields that employ GIS, and a general discussion of the potential for GIS in the classroom. This would be followed up by a well-supported interaction with an easy-to-use, conceptually straightforward GIS software package. This less haphazard introduction to GIS may ensure a more effective use of the "hard" GIS technology and a greater willingness to conceptualize the role of the attendant "soft" technologies accompanying any large GIS enterprise.
International Attitudes
Gerber attempted to assess the impact of technology
on geography educators around the world. He surveyed
193 educators from five continents and various educational
levels. In his survey, the two most popular attitudes
towards the effective use of technology in education
were: it can be used effectively in both the arts and
the sciences and it makes education more interesting.
(Gerber, 1992) Both of these attitudes, if truly
prevalent, would be boons for GIS activities. Although
GIS has many obvious roles to play in the sciences,
it also can make significant contributions to social
studies and other disciplines not strictly categorized
as sciences. GIS adherents would quickly attest to
its inherent interest factor, but an attitude among
the majority of educators that technology increases
student interest levels will be the factor that will
pave the path for the incorporation of GIS activities
in the secondary school classroom.
Gerber also asks the geography educators to identify the most common problems and the benefits presented by technology in the classroom. The most commonly mentioned problems were the expense, accessibility for classroom use, and amount of training required. (Gerber, 1992) At this stage in GIS development it would be hard to argue that these problems will be easily overcome when introducing GIS software into the schools. These are issues that are apparent to many working both in and with the schools and in time will most likely be adequately addressed. Specifically for GIS, the GIS community bears some of the responsibility for improving teacher access to the technology, providing learning opportunities (such as the NCGIA workshops), and for providing the technical advice for the development of software for the schools that incorporates some or even most of the common GIS functionalities.
The top three benefits were: additional teaching strategies, increased interest in lessons, and time savings. The benefits that rated high that are especially germane to GIS in the classroom are increased interest in lessons, visualization of difficult concepts, availability of up-to-date data, and easier data management. Other potential benefits that relate to GIS-based education that didn't rate as high were marketable skills, more research, brings the world to the classroom, and less paper.
One part of Gerber's survey was the technique of teacher-drawn Idea Maps that demonstrate the various links and nodes envisioned by the individual when pondering the role of computers. These "brainstorming" and rather chaotic diagrams actually yield a general perspective on each individual's attitude towards technology. These attitudes range from the technological enthusiasts to the technological neophytes to the technological antagonists. Gerber suggests that the teachers that appear to see computers as exerting a major influence on a wide range of life activities are more likely to incorporate them in their teaching. On the other side of the spectrum, some teachers clearly demonstrated their frustration with and even hostility towards computers in their sketches. (Gerber, 1992) Eventually, it is into this diverse environment that broadly-based GIS activities will be introduced, but it may be more strategic or perhaps only possible to impact the "computer friendly" classrooms first.
It is not surprising that Gerber found in the parts of his recent survey on the knowledge of, use of, and access to various hard and soft technologies that more than 50% of geography educators responded that they were unfamiliar with GIS software and the vast majority did not use or have access to the software. Remote sensing software followed a similar pattern, but was considered more well known than GIS, while at the same time less used and available. This flip-flop may reflect the earlier promotion and wide use of remote sensing software, but the greater present variety, availability, and range of uses of GIS software, respectively. Since the mix of educators surveyed was roughly a 60:40 ratio of the pre-collegiate educators to collegiate, it can be reasonably assumed that subtracting the collegiate response, the GIS exposure of the remaining group would be negligible.
Gerber concludes that "firstly, geographical educators need to develop a broader understanding of the concepts of technology." He suggests that teachers begin to include the "soft" organizational skills and behaviors to balance the traditionally exclusive emphasis on the "hard" artifacts in discussions on technology. Geography educators can begin to incorporate this fuller understanding of technology as part of in-service sessions that will help to "demystify" these concepts. "Secondly, these educators need to become aware of the potential of 'hard' and 'soft' technologies for improving geographical education. ... Thirdly, in-service experiences should be planned to give geographical educators extensive practice in the development of a range of applications using technology in geography teaching and learning." (Gerber, 1992, p297) Although one might question the importance Gerber ascribes to the role of "soft" technologies in geographic education, it is conceivable that GIS activities, although undoubtedly "hard" in their obvious manifestation, may be very effective in demonstrating to students the organizational skills necessary to carry out a GIS analysis, especially in the context of group work.
Multimedia
Out of the vast sea of "hard" technologies some might be isolated and identified as instructional technologies. In this category it is useful to make a distinction between media and machine. Often media, such as print, video, and audio, may be identified as the conveyor or container of the curricular information and the machine as merely the utilitarian device that makes this transfer of knowledge possible. Thus, some of these machines are merely audio-visual display devices such as overhead, slide, and movie projectors. Other machines such as computers, however, are in some ways a part of the media since they logically interact with the media. Many of the newer educational technologies are computer-based and fall under the category multimedia.
Multimedia integrates text, graphics, sound, images, animation, and full-motion video with the power of computers to create a "multisensory" experience. This "natural" presentation of information through these means is one of the key characteristics of multimedia. Another feature is the ability to navigate in a non-linear, user-controlled fashion through the information. This process is labelled hypermedia. (Oblinger, 1992)
Lamb describes the "classroom of tomorrow" as a multimedia classroom. She states that the benefits of multimedia-based classroom instruction in higher education are a stimulating teaching and learning environment and the encouragement of student ownership and self-expression in their learning. She goes so far as to claim that hypermedia materials are more engaging than traditional print materials, since learners spend more time processing information. (Lamb, 1992) Whether students actually intellectually explore the concepts embedded in the hypertext medium in greater depth than with print or rather skate along on the surface searching randomly through the data, images, and text is open to debate, but the flexibility of a multimedia hypertext view of the world creates new possibilities for learning without preventing the use of the static image and text of the textbook. The computer with a graphical user interface is an integral component of this multimedia-based teaching. In this environment, GIS can become a powerful hyperlinked medium.
Multimedia can allow students in a variety of disciplines to explore concepts that are typically unavailable to them; they might be too dangerous, impossible to explore, or just out of the budget of the institution. This might include the examination of microscopic environments (e.g., journeys through the various organs of the body) or the observation of violent chemical reactions. (Lamb, 1992) For students, multimedia may allow them to "perform" GIS analysis without acquiring powerful, prohibitively expensive, and overly complicated software and hardware.
Interactive video
One of the first multimedia formats was interactive
video. Interactive video uses a computer to allow
the viewer to interact with the video message. Still
or motion pictures can be accessed in a sequence that
fits the users needs or desires, thus abolishing the
passive viewing of traditional video. This interactive
mode of learning is claimed to increase information
retention rate to 75% from the 40% in the case of traditional
video. (Oblinger, 1992)
Interactive video can be stored on CD-ROM disks or on videodisks. An early example of videodisk use in geography was The Domesday Project in Britain. In this project, students from around that country took photographs and wrote about their local area creating vignettes that were stored on a videodisk. Another disk contained national data from government and quasi-government sources. The Domesday disks used a microcomputer to facilitate interaction with the data which was linked to 24,000 1:10,000 scale Ordinance Survey maps of the country. Data could be accessed at different scales through selecting the area of interest on the maps. In addition to the 1:10,000 maps, the disks include 43,000 photos, 500 maps at various scales, over 150,000 pages of text, and 9,700 statistical data sets. The disk appeared in 1986 and was enthusiastically received. (Maguire, 1989b)
The enormous quantity of information on the Domesday disks emphasizes the storage capabilities of interactive video. The modes of interacting with this data represent the wide range of multimedia-based instructional uses of interactive video, including GIS. Although the software running the disks might not be identified by some experts as GIS software, it did incorporate some analytical functionality such as the ability to overlay digital statistical data on the analog maps (which had been optically scanned), to search the database through the use of geographic coordinates or by selecting an area on the image, and to interactively calculate distances along a path. (Rhind, et al., 1988) This project is an excellent example of the synthesis of multimedia with geographic data and techniques in an educational context. Also seen in this example is the ability of some multimedia technologies to serve as a simple GIS.
The Domesday model was later emulated in the "Community Snapshot" of Toronto in which pre-collegiate students collected data (textual, numerical, and photographic) about their city. The data was compiled on a microcomputer controlled videodisk. (Clarkson, 1991) The significance of this project is that it is a proof of the concept that students can effectively build substantial and useful databases based on their own field work. This provides an important example for GIS activities in the schools, because the heart of the GIS is the database and students appear to respond favorably to data from familiar (i.e., local) areas. In order to be able to use this local data in their GIS, students may need to collect their own "fresh" samples.
GIS may be part of the pizzazz of a multimedia production. It could serve as the analysis engine in a hypermedia information web. On the other hand, multimedia and hypermedia may also act in support role for GIS. Since interactive video and multimedia in general are gaining favor in the classroom and since they are effective communication tools, they may be appropriate means for introducing GIS to the schools.
Hypertext
Another common form of multimedia is hypertext programs.
Hypertext information is stored in a non-traditional
organizational structure unlike traditional databases
which have an "extremely regular structure defined
by a high-level data definition language." (Theobald,
1992, p1) The hypertext structure, on the other hand,
is fragmented with no "central definition".
(Nielson, 1990) This allows the user to access the
information non-sequentially creating the possibility
of multiple paths for data acquisition and analysis.
This learner-centered mode of information access is
more similar to the theories on natural cognitive strategies
where learning is "an active process of reorganizing
the learner's knowledge structures." (Theobald,
1992, p2)
Theobald (1992, p3) in a review of the potentials of hypermedia in geographic education states "the visual nature of geography relates well to the multimedia abilities of hypermedia, and the flexible linking of concepts allow interrelations among phenomena to be naturally depicted so as to facilitate the understanding of spatial phenomenon." Theobald does not mention the metaphor of the "map as index" as a significant feature available to both hypertext curricula specifically emphasizing geographic learning and those unconsciously doing so by linking various forms of data to spatial entities (e.g., famous authors linked to their country or city of origin).
One type of software in which hypertext learning modules can be developed is HyperCard for the Macintosh computer. Slocum and Egbert (1991) emphasize the power of this hypertext medium in their enthusiastic description of its capabilities; "it can function as an application program, a screen painting program, a database program, or as a complete programming language." Of course, like many integrated productivity software packages, the multiple functionality of a HyperCard stack often limits its ability to perform any one type of task with distinction. While a HyperCard environment might be adequate for an electronic atlas, it may not be sufficient for GIS. The great advantage of hypertext, however, is not that it will be the GIS, but that it can serve primarily as a gateway to fully functional GIS software packages.
Raveneau, et al. highlight the use of HyperCard as the medium for electronic atlases in their description of two French language micro-atlases they have developed. One HyperCard atlas is devoted to North American French communities and the other to the geography of mines and minerals in Canada. They show how the wealth of digital data being created can be effectively presented in HyperCard-based maps with links to other types of data. (Raveneau, et al., 1991)
Hypermedia has been used effectively by Jonathon Raper and Nick Green to teach GIS concepts. Their HyperCard stack (program) is named GISTutor. GISTutor allows the user to navigate through various paths connecting subtopics. The subtopic are grouped under the following topical headings: Capture, Edit, Structure, Restructure, Manipulate, Search, Analyze, Integrate. Each subtopic has a series of information "cards" and in some cases animations. Learner control over information retrieval sequencing either allows the whole tutorial to be covered (but in the order desired by the user), familiar or uninteresting topics to be skipped, or selective access based on a specific topical query or on a need for review. (Raper and Green, 1989) GISTutor appears to provide an effective reinforcement of GIS fundamentals. It has been used by teachers in the NCGIA Secondary Education Project workshop with some success despite limited time spent working with it. It may be a bit too detailed for the average secondary school student, but for advanced students working on GIS projects it could serve as an excellent tool to put their projects in context.
It has been suggested and demonstrated in a prototype, that the NCGIA core curriculum could be adapted to a hypertext format. (Srinivasan, 1992) Another initial attempt to put GIS content in a hypertext format, this time specifically for secondary schools, has been started by one of the teachers involved in the NCGIA GIS workshop for secondary school teachers. This project did not progress far, but did serve as a proof of concept. (Palladino, 1993a)
Other forms of multimedia
An excellent example of an interactive learning environment
and the incorporation of choropleth maps in that environment
is the Great American History Machine (GAHM) produced
by Miller (see Miller, 1988). The GAHM allows students
to access county level census records from 1840 to
the 1980s using a user-friendly graphical user interface.
This data can be analyzed in the choropleth maps created
by the students with help from the GAHM. (Slocum and
Egbert, 1991)
Taylor (1991) reports on electronic atlases as a form of multimedia. He notes that cartography can be an important part of a multimedia system since maps can be key elements in the database and can also serve as a powerful interface for the organization of data. Louise Guay, in a description of the Electronic Atlas of Canada, documents the components of a multimedia atlas as involving "visualization of information, schematization, comparative analysis, ordering, animation, dynamic modelling, projection, random navigation, hypertext, databases, and a capacity for processing and interactivity." (Guay, 1992, p2) Slocum and Egbert (1991, p181) note that electronic atlases range from the digital reproduction of a book to "a complete information system in which map queries and analyses are possible." On the later end of this spectrum, the electronic atlases are essentially simple GIS packages.
Computers in the Schools
One of the primary forms of "hard" technology impacting the schools is the personal computer. One use of the computer in the school is as the controller of a multimedia learning environment. Computers are also used with a great variety of software including more recently GIS packages. Although many of the multimedia technologies may interface with or emulate GIS software and may aid instruction about GIS, the technological backbone of GIS in the schools will most likely be the personal computer.
Over the last fifteen years the personal computer has become established in the schools. In the 1980s the number of microcomputers in the schools increased nearly 50-fold to almost 2.5 million. The growth rate was between 300,000 and 400,000 computers per year. (Becker, 1991) Before this period of growth, however, in the early part of the decade, glowing media reports on computer use often were based on cases of "unusual schools with hard-to-replicate amounts of computer equipment, teacher expertise, and family resources." (Becker, 1991, p386) This situation has improved, but it is interesting to note that GIS is now in the stage that personal computers were ten years ago. Many of the current examples of GIS use in schools resemble this description of the "super school".
Early in the 1980s, the low number of computers in the schools dictated a choice between a concentration of the few computers in a centralized lab providing only a few students with significant computer exposure or a distribution of computers to the point where many students receive some though rather insignificant computer exposure. In this period, computer use was predominantly programs and games emphasizing drill and practice. By the end of the decade, computers were much more widespread in the schools, but changes in the types of use were modest. There was some movement in the secondary schools towards the use of computers as "productivity tools for expressing ideas and recording and analyzing information." (Becker, 1991, p386) It is in this movement towards computers as a tool for information management and application that GIS activities belong, but without a strong tradition of computer use as a productivity tool or rather, as an instrument for curriculum content and concept learning, GIS activities may prove to be ahead of their time.
Computer Hardware
Becker has been one of the main researchers monitoring
the number and use of personal computers in the nation's
schools. His latest review, the International Association
for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement 1989
"Computers in Education" survey, shows that
there was a continued increase in the numbers of computers
in the schools, improvement in computing power available
to students, and more experience with computer-based
learning activities that were more than drill and practice
from the time of Becker's previous assessment in 1985.
In 1989, the primary computer in both elementary and secondary schools was the Apple II. The high schools also had a reasonable contingent (29%) of MS-DOS machines and a small number of Macintosh machines. The projection was for Apple IIs to continue to increase in the elementary schools. At the high school level, however, Becker reported that schools were planning most of their purchases to be MS-DOS with some Macintosh acquisitions. Even if purchases of Apple IIs did not continue past 1990, Becker predicted that in 1993 only 60% of the school computers would be the more powerful MS-DOS and Macintosh machines. (Becker, 1991) The reports of the teachers that attended the NCGIA GIS workshop and other anecdotal information have essentially verified Becker's forecast.
The majority of secondary schools had computer labs, but less than 20% of computers in those labs were networked. (Becker, 1991) Networked computers may be useful for GIS activities that involve the whole class such as using a GIS to access various datasets stored on a central server. Given the price and complexity of many GIS packages, it seems likely that teachers that have access to networked computer labs may still opt to use just one or a couple of computers due to the high cost of software.
Computer Use
Whether networked or "stand alone", computers
are often merely used in the schools as a tool for
reinforcing learning. These type of drill and practice
activities were still the dominant uses of computers
at the end of the 1980s. There was, however, some
movement away from rote learning and towards communication
and information processing activities designed to support
learning of course content. For example, in 1989,
a majority of high school computer coordinators viewed
the computer as a tool for academic tasks as opposed
to a resource to learn about computers or a means to
improve basic skills. This trend bodes well for GIS
activities since they are chiefly concerned with expressing,
storing, and analyzing spatial information.
Although more emphasis had been placed on the computer as a tool to help students learn content and explore concepts, rather than drill and practice, much of the work on the computers was still devoted to mastery of software as opposed to the utilization of that software for intellectual development. (Becker, 1991) In addition, many of the computer coordinators in Becker's study identified the option of "computers used to learn about computers" as very important, but the coordinators with this opinion were not a majority as they had been in a 1985 survey. Unfortunately, present GIS software will most likely add to this excessive focus on learning how to use software rather than using it to learn. There are also many ways that the use of GIS software could expand student understanding of computers and their use in society; however, these valid goals should not supersede the primary goal of GIS in the schools which is to help students to think spatially and gain a greater understanding of curricular elements with spatial components.
Even though there were movements toward more sophisticated uses of computers in the schools, basic skills reinforcement was still seen by a small percentage of the coordinators at the secondary level and by a majority at the elementary level as the primary purpose of computers in the schools. (Becker, 1991)
Another way to view computers in the classroom is by their relative use among the different disciplines. As the pedagogical goals to be achieved by computer use varies, so too does the relative quantity of computer use in the various school courses. English and math are the traditional disciplines that use computers the most in the high schools. Science and social studies also make use of computer, but together account for less than 10% of the use. (Becker, 1991)
Despite the "use" in these disciplines, the majority of computer-based work in high schools is actually centered around learning word processing, keyboarding, programming, and the development of skills with databases and spreadsheets. This does not include the use of word processing, database, or spreadsheets as a part of the content instruction for math, English, science, or social studies. In fact it appears that the computer coordinators were obsessed with the need to teach students to use productivity software at the expense of using computers as a "learning medium" in various subjects. (Becker, 1991)
Although teachers anticipated computers being used more often in the sciences and the social studies in the early nineties, the emphasis on these disciplines was expected lag behind other disciplines (math, English, business education) and types of use (word processing, keyboarding). This was especially true for social studies where just over 10% of the coordinators anticipated increased use over the few years following the 1989 survey. (Becker, 1991) The low use of computers in these two disciplines which represent key entry points for GIS activities may indicate that GIS will have a hard time catching on. On the other hand, it may be just this type of stimulating use of computers that will increase the role of computers in science and social studies.
The one use of computers mentioned above that was not seen as a growth area was programming. Evidently programming in the schools has reached a saturation point. This may negate the argument that one of the potential benefits of GIS in the schools is that it could provide interesting examples for computer programming; however, it may be just these types of interesting results from programming activities that will revitalize programming in the schools.
A third way of viewing computer use is by the mode of use within a particular classroom. In the secondary schools, the main use for the computer is enrichment as opposed to regular instruction. (Becker, 1991) This could be in part due to the general lack of access to computers which prevents teachers from using them on a regular basis. It might also indicate that teachers have not been adequately prepared to incorporate computers into their daily instruction. It seems likely that a teacher who is accustomed to computer use on a regular basis will be better prepared for GIS activities, however GIS could also serve as an effective enrichment activity.
A critique of the National Council for Social Studies technology standards for the incorporation of computers in the humanities serves as a synopsis of the issues surrounding computer use in the schools. The critique identities four important factors that were neglected in the standards. The factors are: "(1) computers are used differently when employed as productivity tools, instructional media, or 'stand alone' instructional systems; (2) computer integration progresses in slow, developmental stages; (3) a symbiotic relationship exists between staff experience and software and hardware purchasing; and (4) computer integration involves planned and facilitated change." (Brady and Barth, 1992, p14) When anticipating the implementation of GIS activities in the schools, these factors should also be kept in mind.
Computer Software Use
The type of software used typically follows the patterns
of computer use identified above. Other factors also
contribute to decisions by teachers to incorporate
a particular computer program or software package into
their teaching. As it is, teachers must work hard
to acquire adequate computing equipment and adjust
their teaching styles to computer-based activities.
At the same time, they are being called by curriculum
guides to implement a variety of new teaching strategies,
including the use of computers.
One of these strategies that teachers are being pressed to implement in their classrooms is critical thinking activities. This strategy as with many of the others (e.g., group work) can be effectively aided by computer software. One example of the use of computer software in geography to stimulate critical thinking is provided by Robinson and Thornton (1992) in their discussion of a PC Globe-based learning activity. PC Globe is an electronic atlas that allows the student to quickly access current information on the counties of the world. These educators had students use information on age distribution in two counties to make budgetary decisions for various governmental social programs. They also had students attempt to find correlations between pairs of statistical records in the PC Globe database. Although PC Globe does allow students to view statistical data graphically and in the form of choropleth maps, students are limited in forms of representation, cannot overlay choropleth maps, and cannot modify the placement of features on the maps. Since GIS software has these additional capacities, it may provide a more significant means of engaging students in critical thinking activities.
Part of the next section identifies additional geographic software packages classified by type of use. Although many of these software packages are useful in geography education, Becker (1991, p401) noted "materially, not only do teachers require well-constructed, easy-to-use, and manifestly powerful software tools, but they also need models, examples, and detailed directions for how these computer applications can be used to directly address the primary curricular goals that they are obligated to follow." He also comments that producing software and distributing it (and even training teachers to use it) does not ensure that computer software will receive "frequent and integral" use in the classroom.
Computers in Geography Education
While computers are common in geography instruction in higher education, their use at the pre-collegiate level is not so common, but is increasing. This section reviews the types of use for computers in geography education at both education levels. It reviews Computer Assisted Learning in geography, lists the various types of geographic software, and gives examples of geographic software used in geography education.
Computer Assisted Learning
The use of computers in education is often termed Computer Assisted Learning (CAL). CAL indicates a use of computers as an aid in learning rather than only as a tool for research. Unwin (1992, p73) has suggested a reasonably robust typology for CAL in geography:
Unwin (1991) gives various examples of computers as sources of data and information including several mentioned in this chapter: interactive video, CD-ROM, and the Domesday disks. Electronic atlases also serve as a source of data and can also be used as an instructional tool. A GIS can also serve as a repository for information and various types of data. A GIS often is not only a source of existing data, but also, by using the ability of GIS to manipulate the data, new information is created or information present in the existing data can be better visualized.
GIS is probably the best example of the computer as an analytical tool in geography given the fact that analysis of spatial data is one of the main purposes for which GIS packages are designed. In addition to GIS, Unwin (1991) mentions digital cartography, image processing, statistical, and even word processing software as other computer-based analytical tools.
Unwin seems to primarily have simulation and modeling in mind for his category, laboratories for investigating the world. He mentions several examples of simulation exercises and games such as SimCity and Dodson's (1991) von Thünen package. (Unwin, 1992) Although Unwin doesn't mention GIS in this context, the GIS environment is used as a modelling tool and many GIS applications are actually simulations for the purpose of decision making.
Unwin's last category is the use of computers to teach, CAI. "In CAI the computer is used to interact with the student in some form of programmed, self-paced course of instruction." (Unwin, 1991) An example of CAI in geography is the HyperCard program GISTutor which allows students to explore basic GIS concepts in a self-directed environment.
The term CAL has been around since the 1960s, but the explosion of the personal computer market in the 1980s has brought the subject to the forefront. Although Unwin lists successful uses of CAL in geography and puts forth this framework which indicates that CAL could play a significant role in geography education, he notes that the "uptake" of CAL by university and college instructors has been quite weak. (Unwin, 1992) He attributes this to at least two factors. One is the perception that CAL activities are centered around the delivery and testing of factual information, a limited "programmed learning" approach that has little appeal to the instructors. The other factor is a belief held by many instructors that computers can function as learning tools in the more analytical parts of the discipline (i.e., as a part of research activities), but have little utility for teaching the concepts that make up the "rest of geography." (Unwin, 1991)
Another perspective on CAL in geography is provided by Maguire (1989a). He describes the uses of CAL as: enhance presentation, aid in lecture preparation, tutorials, field work, and problem solving/hypothesis testing. As can be seen in this somewhat anemic list, Maguire may appear to be less sanguine about the role of CAL. This reserved attitude may also be found in his comments that CAL might be "oversold", that the terminology serves to "mystify" the subject, little is known about the "precise benefits", creation of CAL software can be "expensive" and "time consuming", and since use of CAL in geography is "sparse" it may not have reached the "critical mass" needed to make a significant impact. If Maguire's seemingly less optimistic assessment is correct, the use of GIS as an educational tool rather than only as a vehicle for research may be a bit premature.
Maguire was most likely commenting on the present manifestation of CAL in higher education, not the potential benefits of CAL. At the earlier educational levels, many of the uses of computers listed in this chapter could be considered CAL. At these levels, many of the factors affecting teacher use of CAL are probably different from those considered by the collegiate educator. Freeman and Hassell (1983, p41) list various factors that affect a decision by a teacher to use CAL or to develop a teaching style that would be able to incorporate CAL. These factors can be grouped in classes such as institutional, social, technical, and educational. Examples from each classification are "government pressures for computer use in schools", "parental pressures for computer education", "availability of computer hardware", and "fitting the curriculum" respectively.
Uses for Computers in Geography
Although CAL may still be evolving at all educational levels, Fitzpatrick (1990, p148) is enthusiastic about the use of computers in geography instruction in the schools. He states, "there is no subject better suited to the many uses of computers than geography." He goes on to give a broad overview of some of the learning objectives that can be achieved through the use of computers, including student exploration of information. Fitzpatrick in this and a later article (Fitzpatrick, 1992) attempts to clearly express the potentials for computers in geography instruction in the schools. His target audience is K-12 teachers, many of whom may be computer phobic. Thus he avoids discussion of some of the inherent difficulties such as buggy software, cryptic instructions, limitations of present software packages, and in adequate hardware and other resources. Nevertheless, his assertion that geography is a natural discipline for making use of computers is based on solid arguments. For example, he points out that "the geography teacher has to deal with vast libraries of textual information, numerical data, and graphic displays, all of which need constantly to be updated and experienced from a range of perspectives." (Fitzpatrick, 1992, p156)
The following list of many of the various types of computer use in geography provides a sense of this broad potential for CAL. The list was compiled from a variety of sources and represents uses of computers both in the collegiate and pre-collegiate environments. (see Fitzpatrick, 1992; Maguire, 1989a; Mather, 1991; Midgley, 1985; Taylor, 1991; Watson, 1984)
Various software packages are used in the university setting to accomplish one or more of the functions listed above. In some cases the software that is used in the universities is beginning to be used in the schools, but for the most part educational software has been developed independently of these packages. Fitzpatrick (1990) provides a listing of educational software for geography teaching in the schools. He identifies three categories for these software packages, database, exploratory, and simulation. These education software packages could also be identified as performing some of the functions in the list above.
Word Processing/Database/Spreadsheet/Tutorials
The three common productivity software package types,
word processing, database, and spreadsheet, are each
employed as a support to geography instruction. Maguire
(1989a) devotes a whole chapter to word processing
as a tool in geography. Database software can be used
to store geographic data in an accessible format which
can be edited and updated at will. Spreadsheets can
be used for simple numerical aggregation and statistical
analysis. The use of these packages as noted earlier
is also quite common in the secondary schools, though
not necessarily in geography. Another common use besides
productivity software is as an alternate mode of presenting
worksheets and tests for students in geography courses.
In this case HyperCard stacks or canned tutorial software
is used by the instructor as a supplement to and in
some cases a replacement for the lectures and readings.
Statistics
In addition to spreadsheet based statistical analysis,
there are a variety of statistical software packages
that are employed by geographers and geography students
at the university level. One package that has been
designed for CAL in spatial statistics that demonstrates
the concept of autocorrelation is Griffith's EXPLORHO.
Although spatial autocorrelation is usually a topic
reserved for higher education, this Tetris-like game
can be used to expose younger students to the concept.
(see Griffith, 1987) Richardson (1984) documents
the use of microcomputers by pre-collegiate students
to gather data in the field on which simple statistical
analysis is performed with the help of the computer.
She claims that automated data collection facilitated
by computers can take some of the tedium out of time
series data collection. Students are able to avoid
antimotivational activities such as "sitting in
the rain at gauging posts for 24 hours." (Richardson,
1984, p.43). Once the data is collected, Richardson
asserts that the computer allows students to concentrate
on interpreting the data since much of the calculation
and presentation is automated.
Data Storage and Display
This use of computers to gather data in the field is
one example of data storage and display. The data
display function is characteristic of the various electronic
atlas programs (e.g., PC Globe). Data storage is often
carried out in general database programs or "stand
alone" on various types of computer storage media
(CD-ROM is increasingly being used as a storage base
for pre-packaged data sets). Digital mapping programs
can produce various map based presentations of the
data. Gossette and Wheeler (1993) describe their simple
choropleth mapping package, FOLIO, that is used to
display various statistical indicators for North America
in a regional geography course. Although students
are somewhat restricted by this program in their ability
to select and manipulate the data inputs to the thematic
maps they are making, they do have a readily accessible
tool for visualizing data. There are also commercial
mapping packages that function more for data display
than for cartographic production or geographic information
analysis, even though they may have some of those capabilities
and may even be marketed as GIS programs. These packages
include MapInfo, Atlas*PRO, Tactician, and ARCVIEW.
ARCVIEW and electronic atlases are being used in the
schools to allow students to visualize geographic data.
Communications
Communication between computers allows for the remote
access of data and for collaborative projects. Both
of these functions are becoming common in university
geography. They are also impacting pre-collegiate
education. Teachers are just beginning to be connected
to the Internet, but new access modes and initiatives
to link more schools to the network are increasing.
The Joint Education Initiative (JEI) has an internet
discussion forum in which digital data is described
and made available. JEI is a federally funded project
that has the purpose of making imagery (satellite and
space probe) available to the schools. Another use
of electronic networks is the National Geographic Kids
Network (KIDSNET). KIDSNET joins thousands of 4-6
grade students from around North America to share data
and work interactively on learning units that cover
"real-world scientific issues." (National
Geographic Society)
Simulation/Modelling/Experiments
There are a wide range of simulation and modelling activities
that can be carried out by computers. Many of these
are in physical geography such as modelling storm water
discharge in a hydrologic network. Brusilovsky and
Gorskaya-Belova (1992) in Moscow document a computer-based
model of landforms used with students ages 13-14 in
a physical geography of oceans and continents course.
The use of the landform modeling program nearly doubled
the success rate of students in a test conducted by
the researchers.
Various human geography topics can also be simulated. Maguire (1989a) documents examples such as a site selection process for a new factory, a fractal based simulation of urban land use, and a modelling environment for future relationships on a global scale between population, agriculture, resource use, industry, and pollution. He claims that current technology allows for models and simulations that incorporate many parameters. He sees them as one viable component for research which can help reduce the complete dependence on costly field-based research. (Maguire, 1989a)
A variety of simple simulation games have also been designed for the schools including a surficial hydrology modelling program, a manufacturing plant location simulation, and a latitude dependent wind modelling program. (see Watson, 1984) These programs tend to provide a mix of modelling/simulation and basic concepts tutoring. The commercial simulation programs, SimCity and SimEarth have also been used in geography education. The computer can also be used to model or otherwise communicate spatial relationships for human subject experiments in geography.
Computer Cartography
Computer cartography is similar to desktop mapping,
but in this classification scheme, the term refers
to programs that are used to create new maps, not display
data on existing maps (as was the case described under
the function Data Storage and Display.) Many of the
software packages used for cartographic production
are actually commercial graphic production programs
such as Aldus Freehand, Adobe Illustrator, and CorelDraw.
Some simple map creation programs exist such as MapMaker
and GEOBASE (which functions as a desk accessory on
the Macintosh). Some of the drawing, map data display,
and productivity packages have drawing tools that can
be used to create simple maps. Students can use any
of these packages, depending on their requirements,
to produce maps. (see Keller and Waters, 1991 for
a comprehensive list of mapping software)
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing concepts are taught with various software
packages in higher education. (see Nellis, et al.,
1989) Although remote sensing may seem to be a complex
topic, one of its key concepts, pixels in gridded data,
has been successfully taught to grade 6 students.
In this study, Kirman and Unsworth (1992) used gridded
paper to simulate a Landsat (or similar digital) scene.
Although they did not actually work on computers,
they demonstrated that this basic concept fundamental
to the use of computer based remote sensing was not
out of the reach of these elementary school students.
In a later study, Kirman and Jackson (1993) replicate
the original research with the use of a simple computer
program. In this more sophisticated version, students
continued to be able to understand the concepts of
digital data and pixels and even were somewhat successful
at the interpretation of general land uses on a Landsat
scene. Further research in this area would be appropriate,
since many of Kirman and Jackson's conclusions were
based on anecdotal observations of student actions
and comments while attempting to identify a potential
building site on the Landsat image.
Becker (1989), a space education consultant, maintains that students 8 or 9 years old "have no difficultly learning Landsat or GOES satellite instrumentation, understanding the digital telemetry process, or memorizing the basic infrared color code and applying it to image interpretation." Although this assessment may be overly optimistic and sounds a bit like programmed learning and response, it is true that students have used satellite imagery effectively in hardcopy form. Recently the National Council for Geographic Education completed a GEO/SAT project. The project produced a set of lessons using digital imagery provided by EOSAT which is displayed and analysed on a special image processing package, PEDAGeOG, created by EIDETIC.
Geographic Information Systems
There are scores of GIS software packages on the market.
Many of these are used in colleges and universities
to teach students about GIS and geographic information
analysis techniques. Universities are beginning to
use GIS for CAL. White and Simms (1993) document an
activity in an environmental studies course that used
GIS software to help students determine a hypothetical
location for a new solid waste landfill site. For
the exercise, the class was organized to represent
a corporate structure; the instructor was the CEO and
the students were grouped into teams representing departments.
Each department collected different types of data:
physical, economic, political, and regulatory. White
and Simms (1993, p85) conclude that this type of exercise
using GIS as a teaching tool can "present data
more powerfully" and "spark creativity and
imagination" as well as accomplish the curricular
objectives of the course. Dodson, et al., (1991) list
additional exercises that use GIS to teach geographic
principles.
At the pre-collegiate level various GIS activities have been started or are planned. These make use of various GIS software packages, notably ARCVIEW and IDRISI. (see chapter 4 and Palladino, 1993a) Walsh in an early article geared to introducing teachers to GIS provides an argument for the use of GIS by earth science educators in the schools. He points out the ability of GIS-based investigations to "demonstrate the integration of data elements necessary to understand and analyze the complex nature of surface, subsurface, and atmospheric problems and systems". He also notes that the creation and manipulation of GIS layers can "facilitate a clear understanding of the interactions of earth science elements and the spatial significance of their distribution." (Walsh, 1988, pp24-25) Walsh does not offer any tests of these assertions, but does outline the potentials with a clarity that invites additional research. (For additional discussion of GIS in the schools see Palladino, 1992; Palladino and Goodchild, 1992; Wood and Cassettari, 1992).
Although far from exhaustive, these reflections on some of the uses of geographic software demonstrate the wide range of possible computer uses in geographic education. As schools improve their computing infrastructure, as teachers become more comfortable with the use of computers as a teaching tool, and as software for geographic instruction continues to be developed, it is reasonable to assume that computers will be more effectively used in geographic education.
GIS Technology in the Schools
Although it is likely that computers will have an increased role to play in geography education in the near future, the extension of this movement to use of GIS as an educational tool in the schools may be more complicated. Thompson (1991, p.63) reviews the potential for GIS to serve as medium for communicating various geographic concepts. He even envisions a redefinition of a geographic information system as an "educational delivery system (a set of integrated hardware, software, data and learning resources) for improving the student's knowledge of the world in which he or she lives." He goes on to suggest that this "GIS" provide the students with "a rich resource of information (nodes), associations between discrete pieces of data (links or webs), different learning oriented activities (browsing , tutors, simulations), via a compatible interface (map based metaphor), within a networked social system (teachers ... as coaches)." Since GIS software has not been traditionally designed for this purpose, there are many incompatibilities with general geography instruction. Thompson suggests that there is a need for more discussion of the pedagogic issues surrounding the topic of GIS software as an educational tool.
Back in 1985, Poiker attempted to identify some of the characteristics required of a GIS software suitable for teaching. He suggests that "it should cover all aspects of geography ... include structures for both quantitative and qualitative judgements ... and allow the study of its components by being developed in modular form, well documented and open for inspection." At the time Poiker made these suggestions, GIS software was just beginning its explosive growth fueled by the development of software for workstations and personal computers. At this point, it seems likely that GIS software and geography education in the schools are no longer an incompatible pair due to advances in computers in the schools and in GIS software; however, there are still issues to resolve and it may be worthwhile to consider a variety of strategies for introducing GIS to the schools.
One of these strategies is to introduce GIS analytical techniques without the software. Poiker (1985) notes that "many GIS exist that are not using computers." Walsh (1988) outlines a traditional manual GIS approach that might be used in an earth science course as a precursor to an automated approach. This traditional approach involves transforming spatial data sets to a common scale, placing them on transparencies, and then overlaying the transparencies to find points or areas of coincidence of the original factors present on the separate data layers. While computing in the schools continues to lag behind GIS software development, many GIS techniques can be manually employed to explain geographical concepts. The most common example of a manual GIS involves this use of multiple transparencies of a study area each recording different features or thematic variables. The combination of these layers can accomplish a typical GIS analysis. Although they do not have the power of the software-based GIS, these methods can adequately demonstrate geographic analysis and can serve as an introduction GIS technology.
Technology Requirements/Limitations
For strategies that utilize computers to introduce GIS into secondary school instruction, the status of technology in the schools must be compared with that of GIS technology. As we have seen, the Apple II computers are still dominant in many schools. Although the DOS-based PCs and Apple Macintoshes have also become quite common, the models that are in the schools tend to be those with minimal power and capabilities (older CPU chips, limited RAM and storage space, and low resolution B&W monitors.) GIS software packages are found on a wide range of platforms from mainframe computers to low-level PCs. (See Fisher, 1989 and the annual GIS World magazine GIS Sourcebook for lists of GIS software capabilities and hardware requirements) Most of the PC and Macintosh-based packages run optimally on configurations that are above what is present in most schools.
An excellent example of the mismatch between school computers and GIS software is ESRI's ARCVIEW. ARCVIEW was designed to serve as the GIS data display & query software for the more complex ARC/INFO software. It also is being promoted by the company as a GIS for the schools. The first version of ARCVIEW, however, required PC computers with a much faster processor and more RAM memory than is found in almost all of the computers in the schools. This situation is being ameliorated by the inevitable increase in computing power in the schools. ESRI spokespeople have indicated that ARCVIEW 2 will be more school friendly, including the ability to run on machines with less RAM than was required for the first version of ARCVIEW.
This pattern of low-end GIS software just above maximal computing capability in the schools may continue in the future. GIS developers have traditionally served the business, government, and research communities which tend to be more current in technology than the schools. Schools might be able to utilize earlier versions of software which may have been designed for earlier, less powerful personal computers common in the schools, but often these packages have a crude GUI and may no longer be actively supported by the software developers.
The graphical user interfaces (GUI) of many GIS software packages that might be appropriate for the schools still could use work to make them more user-friendly. Although students may be able to use simple command line interfaces, it is arguable that a point-and-click interface would be both more attractive to students and more clearly understood. Of course both of these two criteria will only be achieved if the GUI is designed with these factors in mind.
Another prime consideration for the use of GIS technology in the schools is data storage capabilities. As we have noted, those schools that have computers more powerful than the Apple II often still have "under-powered" machines in terms of GIS needs. This also true for the data storage demands placed on the computer by many spatial data sets. One way around this issue is to provide simplified data sets. This may mean lower resolution and accuracy or limiting the areal extent or number of features and attributes of the data.
A related topic to data storage is data entry. Since much of the data that is entered into a GIS is map-based, students attempting a GIS project may desire to enter their own map data. This may require digitizing capability. Most schools will not have budgets that will justify the purchase of a small digitizing tablet (much less table) that will only receive occasional use. One possibility is to make use of the CAD systems found in many schools which often have digitizing capabilities. At this stage the CAD to GIS interchange may not be very straight forward. The CAD DXF data exchange format, though supported for import by many GIS packages, does not always yield the intended results (loss of data, requires additional knowledge of data structures, and can take quite a bit of time). Other data entry methods may be more plausible for GIS in the schools. Pre-packaged imagery such as is provide on the JEI JEdI CD-ROM disks and via internet can be used. Simple digitizing can be accomplished using a transparency on the computer screen. Data that can be provided in tabular form to the GIS database may be the simplest form of data entry and should not present a major obstacle for students.
Curriculum Materials
For teachers to effectively use GIS concepts and techniques in their instruction whether automated or manual, they will need supportive curriculum materials that operate within the curriculum frameworks. Presently, curriculum materials designed for the use of GIS in pre-collegiate instruction are just beginning to be developed by the SEP and others (see Palladino, 1993a, and chapter 4).
Many commercial software packages have demonstration packages available. These can be used as simple introductions to GIS, but often these demonstration and other tutorial materials tend to overemphasize the functions of the software rather than the core concepts of GIS analysis. A few of the GIS software developers (e.g., Tydac-SPANS and ESRI) have created materials which are designed to explain GIS and related geographic concepts, but typically from the perspective of their particular software product.
Some GIS curriculum materials, exercises, and informational resources developed for university instruction and potential GIS users in the workplace may provide an initial source of material for a teacher attempting to use GIS in the class room. For example, the NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIS if highly edited can yield basic concepts appropriate for the schools. The effort to produce a "mini Core" of information useful in pre-collegiate setting out of the Core Curriculum may not be as practical as an effort to produce new GIS curriculum materials designed especially for the schools.
Conclusion
As seen in this chapter, technology, more specifically computer use, in the schools is still evolving to a point where the somewhat complex, but useful concepts presented by a GIS-based learning approach in geography (and other subjects) may be tenable in a secondary school environment. As the computing environment slowly improves in the schools, there is a need for accompanying research into the best methods of using these tools, the appropriate mix of technologies to match the pedagogic goals of the instructor, and the ways in which software such a GIS may improve or hinder student learning. Many of the assertions of the teacher/consultants attending the NCGIA pilot study workshop are borne out in this findings of this chapter. For example, the need for more adequate computer hardware and also GIS software and curriculum materials to be specifically developed for the schools were a common theme that appear in both the pilot study and this further research. Computers in the schools present the following challenges: sufficient hardware, access to the available computer resources, adequate teacher preparation, and new pedagogic strategies making use of the potentials of computer hardware and software. In the case of GIS use, one of the key issues is that the GIS software on the market and even those programs available as shareware or free over the internet are not designed for use in the classroom.
Specific recommendations for hardware suitable for GIS include purchasing a large capacity hard disk or other storage medium with reasonable access times in order to store images and student data sets which can be space intensive. As the cost of disk storage continues to drop dramatically, a large disk (250 MB or more) is not completely out of the picture. For computer purchases, the option with the larger disk, while more expensive, is often actually considerable less expensive per storage unit. The memory requirements will vary depending on the type of software teachers intend to use. As noted, ESRI's ARCVIEW, which is becoming the most common GIS software in the schools, is memory hungry requiring a minimum of 8 MB. Other applications may run on less than 1 MB, but a minimum of 4 MB may be more practical. Most newer systems come with at least this much memory. Processing speed is similar to memory. The GIS application used will determine the minimal requirement. Again, ARCVIEW is dependent on the faster processors such as the Intel 80486 chip. Other software packages, such as IDRISI, will run fine on a 80286-based machine. (That is assuming the teacher in not using the newer Windows version of the software.) Unlike simple word processing activities, GIS is quite limited by black and white monitors. Color monitors are more versatile and in many cases necessary to distinguish clearly between classes of spatial data. Other items that would give much greater flexibility to GIS projects are a digitizing tablet, a scanner, and a CD-ROM player. These are not essential elements, but increase the ability to import and create new data.
This discussion of hardware recommendations may be academic for many educators whose schools have little money for computer purchases and who are unable or unwilling to purchase the equipment out of their own savings. It also assumes a willingness to use the technology. As was noted earlier in this chapter, their are still major hurdles to overcome in terms of adoption of computer-based teaching, but the potentials for geography education appear to so significant that it is worth lobbying for adequate resources and learning opportunities for teachers.
Once the technological limitations and perception barriers have been dealt with, a dynamic link between an educational GIS and other forms of multimedia in the schools might form a powerful technology-based tool for instruction in the schools of the twenty-first century. Before our imaginations run wild, it might be useful to review a sobering account of attempts to implement CAL by Flowerdew and Lovett (1992). They humorously link CAL activities with the proverbial Murphy's Law, "if anything can go wrong, it will." Just about anyone who has performed a few demonstrations of GIS software capabilities can attest to validity of this law. In the pre-collegiate classroom the veracity of this law might be unchallenged considering the limited time teachers have to become GIS gurus and the amazing ability of students to find the weaknesses of any technology. Pessimism aside, GIS is already beginning to make an impact in the schools as is documented in the next chapter. Moreover, the trends in computing and GIS software development suggest that GIS will be better positioned to play an increased role in K-12 education in the near future.