Teachers' Views of the Roles for GIS in Their Classrooms
Since the primary focus of this thesis was to determine the roles that geographic information systems and attendant concepts might play in the secondary schools, it was necessary to go early to the key source of wisdom on what works and is needed in the classroom -- the teachers. A pilot study was initiated to ferret out existing GIS efforts for the schools, to pinpoint the key issues requiring investigation for this first comprehensive examination of GIS in this educational environment, and most of all to solicit teacher perceptions on the potential for GIS in their classrooms. This chapter reviews the findings of this pilot study and its key mechanism, a workshop that brought together high school science, social studies, and computer applications teachers and university level GIS researchers. The workshop provided an introduction to GIS for the ten teachers that attended. These teacher/consultants in turn conveyed their perceptions of the feasibility and desirability of GIS activities in the schools. The details of the workshop are found in Appendix A.
GIS in the Schools - Teacher Perceptions
One of the main goals of the workshop was to gather teacher input on the usefulness of GIS in the schools. This information was sought in order to validate or correct the hypotheses that GIS had significant potential for aiding content delivery, invigorating instruction, providing a context for spatial problem solving, and serving as a link to post-secondary uses of GIS. Although the workshop was in part designed to evaluate these assertions, it was also held in order to provide a forum for teachers to express their perceptions without being constricted by overly zealous exploration of the pre-conceived notions of the GIS researchers. This reflects the fact that the workshop was in part designed to aid this thesis research but also was held to advance the goals of the Secondary Education Project. Thus, the workshop began to test the hypotheses advanced, but more significantly outlined many additional research avenues such as evaluating the most effective media for GIS activities and investigating the difference in cognitive strategies employed for spatial analysis with a GIS versus other methods. The following information is a summary of teacher comments on various topics addressed in the workshop. These observations provided a foundation for the extension of SEP activities and thesis investigation that followed.
Although the teacher/consultants had only been exposed to GIS for one week, it was an intensive introduction. Thus, their speculations were reasonably well-informed. On the issue of the productivity of a GIS component in high school courses, the teacher/consultants were unanimously enthusiastic. GIS was seen as an excellent tool for improving the problem solving and critical thinking skills of students. GIS could be a part of "higher order thinking activities that are often so hard to come up with." GIS was also viewed as a natural way of providing an avenue for practicing project management and group working skills. GIS would help introduce high technology as an exciting example of computer use in society. Concern for the environment could be matched by GIS-based environmental case studies. GIS was also seen as a powerful tool for linking disciplines. By including some form of GIS activity in the secondary schools, students could be inspired to follow up with further college or university work in GIS and to seek employment in GIS related fields. These responses began to validate the assertion of this thesis that GIS could indeed have an integral role in the secondary schools.
Place in the Curriculum
The teacher/consultants identified many places for GIS
in the present school curriculum. Obvious subjects
were geography, physical and life science, and earth
science. Other subject areas which the teacher/consultants
thought might benefit include: history, government,
economics, business, environmental studies, computers,
and math. Vocational arts classes might even be the
closest to GIS with their use of CAD software. With
a little imagination the teacher/consultants were able
to dream up a use of GIS in just about any course.
Despite the many opportunities, the teacher/consultants
noted that practical demonstrations of GIS use in the
various courses would need to be available to teachers
before they would embrace GIS.
Two secondary school subject areas were identified as the early targets for GIS activities: earth science and geography. Some teacher/consultants thought that the sciences with their technological bent would be the best place for GIS introduction. Others argued that the "G" in GIS stood for geography and that the systems are inherently geographical in nature, therefore they should be part of a modern geography program. The "GIS/geography relationship [would be] similar to the high school English class where grammar and English literature go together." Partly in response to a public outcry incited by widespread reports in the 1980s of geographic illiteracy of students in the United States, geography classes appear to be slowly becoming more common in the secondary schools and might provide the ground for at least a first look at GIS. This initial exposure to GIS in a geography course could be later translated to use of GIS as a general resource in various other courses. This emphasis by the teachers on geography (and on earth science which has physical geography topics as much of its content) indicated a need to develop a clearer picture of the status of geography in the schools and the impact GIS might make in these courses.
Despite this strong emphasis on geography, the teachers also thought GIS could be the focus of new multi-disciplinary classes. These classes might be "made up of earth science and history classes as they discuss nuclear warfare and its history" or chemistry and civics classes as they study the modern pollution problem. Another place they identified for GIS would be in the school library as an information base and project resource.
As noted above, the teacher/consultants, demonstrating considerable imagination and creativity, suggested a wide variety of subjects that might benefit from GIS. This inclusive perspective nearly matched the maximal speculations of the researcher. It is possible that the teachers, caught up in the excitement of the technology, overstated the reasonable extent in which GIS might be integrated into various secondary school disciplines; however, their arguments for many of the subject areas were not trivial. In some science classes a clear role for GIS required an identification of a spatial component of the course. In the case of chemistry, it was the link to environmental monitoring of pollutants that provided the connection to and justification for GIS use.
Teaching Methods
Many methods for teaching GIS in the various courses
were mentioned by the teacher/consultants. As a precursor
to any form of GIS use, a visual presentation (slides,
video, posters, magazine articles) could prepare the
students by emphasizing the nature of GIS and its effect
on their lives. If this connection is made at the
beginning, the teachers stated that it is more likely
that the students will be motivated to learn. Considering
the state of computing in the schools, it was suggested
many times that there be a set of "manual"
GIS activities that could be completed without computers,
but would lead into the use of the computers where
possible. Even before "manual" GIS work,
some teacher/consultants noted that basic student training
in map use would be helpful. This map practice, however,
might be designed to occur as part of the GIS activities.
In fact, GIS might be an appropriate method for introducing
map reading and use into a course. For the most part
the teacher/consultants saw and wanted their students
to see GIS primarily as a tool to enrich the study
of existing curriculum, with some learning about GIS
and its methodology as a by-product.
If the perception -- the use of GIS is more crucial than instruction about GIS -- is consistent among a majority of teachers, a challenge is presented to anyone attempting to adapt post-secondary GIS education materials and activities to the secondary level since most of these efforts and instructional materials focus on learning about GIS rather than learning general curriculum with the help of GIS. This concern was one of the instigators for the extension of the SEP effort to track down existing GIS activities for the schools. An investigation of these activities would not only bring the current status of GIS in the schools into focus, but also help address the question of whether there would be greater receptivity in the schools towards education with GIS rather than education about GIS. Chapter four documents the findings of this effort.
One set of GIS concepts that the teacher/consultants thought was very valuable was that of data layers and the combinations of those layers. They also pointed out that the raster/vector data models were useful concepts that could be clearly presented on a computer. The manipulation of information (aided by the graphic confirmation provided by the GIS) was another subject that had a broad appeal. It was noted that students having the ability to "compose" their own solutions was an excellent educational method. An obvious mode of GIS use identified was as the platform for a class/team project. A problem would be presented to the students who would then use the GIS to find solutions. Specific information about the operation and power of GIS would be an outgrowth of this type of project work. Another mode would be an easy-to-use GIS with an adequate database as an information and quick analysis supplier for various courses. One way GIS could be presented would be as a job opportunity. GIS users from the community could be utilized as guest speakers. These users could be encouraged to consider taking some studens on as interns. Another suggestion was for a local university or business to sponsor a local contest for geographically based information projects awarding modest prize money for the winners.
Teaching Materials
Whether computers are used or not, material such as
slides, videos, overhead projector transparencies,
posters, examples of GIS output, aerial photography,
and satellite imagery would be helpful in introducing
GIS to students. When computers are used, the teacher/consultants
felt it is still advisable to have a non-technological
component. According to the teachers, materials designed
for GIS in the schools need to have the following characteristics:
Software
For GIS classroom activities that will be computer-based,
there is still a need for either sets of educational
materials designed for existing, inexpensive GIS packages
or a new, simple GIS package created with the schools
in mind. The IDRISI model was favored by the teacher/consultants,
though existing educational materials would need to
be tailored to secondary school requirements. According
to the teachers, software packages need to be straight
forward, easy-to-use, and have "classy looking"
graphics. This is extremely important since teachers,
even if they are not computer neophytes, will not have
the time to learn sets of complex commands and students
will probably not have patience for difficult packages.
The teacher/consultants noted that various surrogates to a full-blown GIS could be employed to introduce students to GIS concepts. These include demonstration packages to existing software, so long as the demonstrations are designed to promote GIS education and utilize simple, comprehensible data sets. Demonstrations that are merely a walk through the commands and capabilities of the GIS package did not go over well. Pseudo-GIS packages such as PC/Globe, Mac/USA, and AutoMAP, drawing packages such as CorelDraw and Aldus Freehand, and other map oriented packages could function as introductions to maps and, with a little creative teaching, GIS. Hypertext tutorials could be designed to explain and demonstrate GIS to students. Some portions of the HyperCard based GISTutor might be employed as a text for some of the technical aspects of GIS in more advanced classroom projects. Hypertext applications could even be wedded to GIS packages in order to provide a familiar, simple to use interface for viewing data in the GIS package. Other media may also be employed in the effort to utilize GIS with students such as CD-ROM, laserdiscs, and multimedia systems. Another key subject in any attempted use of GIS software in the schools is appropriate data. Teachers for the most part will not have the energy to compile their own data. Special data sets will need to be created for GIS educational software and instructional materials.
Hardware
Computer hardware in the schools of the teacher/consultants
was a very inconsistent mix of PC/XT, 286, & 386
IBMs and clones; Apple IIe and IIgs machines; and Macintosh
Plus, SE, Classic, LC, and, in some cases, various
types of Mac IIs. Older and lower power machines were
most common. This presents a challenge to computer-based
GIS use in the schools, since a minimum for comfortable
GIS operation at a beginning level would be 386-based
machines with VGA monitors, or Macs preferably with
color monitors. Some common GIS packages do run on
286-based machines, but these machines usually have
limited disk space for large GIS data sets and slow
processing speeds detrimental or prohibitive to many
GIS operations.
The teacher/consultants and GIS researchers at the workshop attempted to identify the hardware necessary for various types of GIS activities in the secondary schools. For advanced GIS class activities, sharing a small digitizing tablet and a laser printer would be helpful. For a GIS-based lesson for a whole class, a student/computer ratio of 1:1 or 2:1 would be best, with 3:1 acceptable. For group projects, there should be a computer per group unless some sort of rotation could be worked out. Comparing the have and need lists of these schools, it is apparent that in many cases schools may not be well prepared for computer-based GIS activities. With budgetary problems, many of the teacher/consultants' schools were not be updating their computer resources any time soon. This means that new packages running best on 486-chip and advanced Macintosh machines will be out of reach of these secondary educators.
The limited sample size and possible auto correlation in regards to computing resources presented by the small group of Santa Barbara and Ventura county teachers attending the workshop, prevent significant generalizations from being made. Thus an extended investigation of computing resources and use in the nation's schools was carried out and is reported in chapter three.
Directions for GIS in the Schools
The teacher/consultants noted many present impediments
to the easy introduction of GIS content into the secondary
schools including instructor inertia and dwindling
budgets. Some teachers have put up resistance to the
use of computers in the classroom chiefly due to the
time involved in learning basic computer skills and
partly due to fear of change. For most teachers, the
present state of GIS materials, software, and hardware
would likely prevent attempts to use GIS in their classes.
This situation can be partially remedied through the
creation of appropriate teaching materials to accompany
GIS software, demonstrations, or learning modules designed
for use in the schools. The other component to break
down teacher resistance would be teacher training in
GIS. The time and support required for GIS activities
will still be a drawback to some teachers; however,
with computers becoming a major classroom tool, sets
of curriculum materials with GIS components eventually
being developed, GIS intersecting our lives on a daily
basis, and GIS-based educational methods being taught
in teacher preparation courses, GIS use will be prevalent
in future schools.
The question remains: how will GIS be made a useful tool for teachers and students? The teacher/consultants identified the following efforts:
These were the primary observations of the teacher/consultants. Although, it cannot be claimed that a set of 10 teachers from one geographic region is a representative group, most of their assertions have been repeated by many of other the teachers contacted by the researcher during and following the SEP pilot study.
Additional SEP Findings
The following are additional reflections on GIS use in the schools. These topics were more difficult for the teacher/consultants to address since they rely on a more thorough knowledge of GIS concepts and direct experience with GIS in the classroom; therefore, they are a synthesis of teacher/consultant remarks and the researcher's other observations during the pilot study phase of the SEP.
Teaching Modes
Discussion with the teacher/consultants uncovered a
variety of ways GIS might appear in a secondary school
course. A classification of these different levels
of use on a continuum from simple to more complex GIS
activities was presented to the teachers. Their comments
and later modification yielded the following classification
scheme. (Palladino, 1993a)
Conceptual Level/Time Commitment Activity Hierarchy
HIGH USE
TEACH ABOUT
TEACH WITH
DEMONSTRATE
DESCRIBE
LOW MENTIONThe teachers pointed out that the specific circumstances of each class would greatly affect which level of GIS activity would be attempted. These levels of use for GIS software and concepts range from simple 'show and tell' to fully developed GIS projects. The base level, mentioning GIS where contextually appropriate, was seen as a common denominator. The next level, describing the technology and its applications in more detail, especially by means of visual presentations such as slides, videos, hard copy GIS output, and case studies, was seen as viable in most classrooms.
Demonstrations of GIS software could be performed by the teacher or by a guest speaker. If more practical, GIS demo packages or pre-package modules could be demonstrated. Moving GIS to a significant role in instruction are the teach with and the teach about levels. These categories reflect two modes of GIS-based educational activities: "GIS in education" and "GIS education". It would be necessary to teach about GIS in order to realize the highest level GIS activity: using GIS software to work through a particular problem.
Within each level of GIS activity on the continuum, varying amounts of GIS-based learning might take place. For example, in the case of teaching with GIS modules designed to enhance the existing curricular objectives of a course (e.g., the study of earthquake location with relation to tectonic plate boundaries in an earth science course), the teacher might try a GIS-based lesson once or use GIS-based materials as a regular part of the course.
This continuum matched the teachers perceptions and related experience with new instructional techniques and technologies in the schools, but a more thorough analysis of the various teaching modes is left for future research.
Appropriate GIS Topics
The NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIS has conveniently laid
out a fairly comprehensive outline of the key themes,
topics, and details for a solid foundation in GIS theory.
(see Goodchild and Kemp, 1990) Since it was designed
for the university curriculum, its treatment of GIS
topics appeared to be much too detailed for the secondary
school classroom. A review of the Core Curriculum
as a potential resource for secondary school classes
was conducted by geoscience teachers at the Thomas
Jefferson High School for Science and Technology.
This magnet school has academically excellent students,
abundant computer resources, and active GIS projects
and thus is well prepared to assess the use of the
Core Curriculum in a best case scenario.
The general conclusion of the review was that the Core Curriculum was for the most part too dense and contained much too much information for presentation in the secondary school classroom. There were specific units, however, that the reviewers thought would be useful to a teacher attempting to present some basic GIS concepts to the students. These included some of the introductory units on GIS application, computers, mapping, raster/vector distinction, and simple GIS operations.
Many of these units had been selected as the basis of the GIS short course presented as part of the pilot study workshop and later SEP workshops. This subset of the Core Curriculum with some additions is geared to secondary school teachers rather than students. It is the responsibility of the teachers to further distill the information into a form that would work with their students. Following the first workshop and the comments of the teacher/consultants, some of the more technical details were removed from the original short course in order to avoid confusion and mental overload and to free up more time for other activities. A list of short course topics is found in Appendix B. The complete short course notes can be found in the SEP Workshop Resource Packet (Palladino, 1993a).
Post-Workshop Directions
The workshop and other pilot study investigations made it clear that there were roles for GIS in the schools, but much more effort was required to get an adequate picture of these potentials. This conclusion of the pilot study, which is also now being called the first phase of the Secondary Education Project, encouraged the NCGIA expand efforts to support GIS for the schools and at the same time motivated this researcher to continue this investigation. As a part of these extended efforts, a proposal was sent to the National Science Foundation's Instructional Materials Development Program. The proposal asked for funding for two major efforts that would be carried out as part of the Secondary Education Project. One was a series of "GIS in the Schools" workshops based on the prototype workshop of the pilot study. The other activity was an Educational Materials Development Partnership in which the NCGIA would coordinate the development of GIS-supported learning modules. Both of these activities would have served as additional testing grounds for the hypothesis put forth in this thesis.
Unfortunately, despite positive reviews, the proposal was not funded; however, it was in part responsible for raising awareness in the NSF education community that computer-based geographic activities are growing in presence and demand. This perception encouraged the NSF to sponsor a specialist meeting in which 60 representatives of the education and GIS communities and key government agencies met in Washington, DC to identify strategic research and development priorities for the use of GIS and associated geographic technologies in the classroom.
Even without the additional funding, the NCGIA has managed to hold two additional GIS workshops for teachers, to develop support materials for GIS activities, and to provide a communication link for those attempting to use GIS in the schools. These activities continue to aid the ongoing investigation of the impact GIS might have on pre-collegiate education.
Conclusion
In the pilot study teachers pinpointed many areas for further investigation and development. These areas include the creation of software, data collections, and curriculum materials to support beleaguered teachers who have little time and energy to develop these resources themselves; the provision of computational resources in the classroom adequate for GIS use; the presentation of models of GIS use and other learning opportunities for teachers; and the evaluation of various questions related to the pedagogic methods that would support and be aided by GIS. The cognitive processing enabled by the spatial analytical capabilities of GIS is another avenue for further research. Strategies for informing the decision makers that designate curricular content also need to be established.
The concluding chapter of this thesis addresses these issues in more detail. Extensive research on many of these questions is left for other researchers, but some of the key issues that appeared to be fundamental to the extended efforts of the SEP to assess the roles for GIS in the schools were explored and are documented in following chapters. Since the inputs to a GIS can be generally considered to belong in the domain of geography, the role of GIS in geography education is examined in more detail in the next chapter. Another topic to be probed in the third chapter is that of technology use in the schools and the effect it may have on the adoption of GIS activities. The final foundational chapter, chapter 4, summarizes the approaches of various existing GIS activities for the schools.