Curriculum

I am a former classroom teacher committed to improving geography education in American schools.
From this perspective, based on conversations with teachers, examination of teacher-produced
curriculum materials, and classroom observations, I am sad to report that students today are given
few opportunities to develop the ability to think spatially let alone to practice spatial problem solving. I
define spatial problem solving from the point of view of the teaching-learning context as the
application of geography to solve problems or resolve issues (Geography for Life 1994, 42).

The National Geography Standards state, "It is essential that students develop the skills that will
enable them to observe patterns, associations, and spatial order" (Geography for Life 1994, 43).
These skills are embodied in the Standards essential element "Seeing the World in Spatial Terms"
and capitalized upon in other Standards but particularly in Standard 18, "The geographically
informed person knows how to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future."
Specifically:

     at grade 4 students are expected to know and understand the spatial dimensions of social and
     environmental problems (140);
     at grade 8 students are expected to apply the geographic point of view to solve social and
     environmental problems by making geographically informed decisions (181); and
     at grade 12 students are expected to use geographic knowledge, skills, and perspectives to
     analyze problems and make decisions (221).

Thus, there is external support for spatial problem solving to be included in the curriculum. However,
this aspect of the National Standards is not well represented in state standards. Elementary and
secondary geography is more about place than space, and more about knowing than doing.

Instruction and Assessment

Technology, specifically geographic information systems (GIS), may be a tool to help teachers and
students learn to think spatially and to introduce spatial problem solving into K-12 education. The link
between GIS and spatial problem solving in K-12 contexts has not been explored conclusively
although research is beginning to show some positive relationships (see Keiper 1999 and Kerski
1999 for case studies at the elementary and a secondary level). GIS is moving into American
classrooms at a very slow rate. The reasons for this are varied but include issues related to hardware
and software, teacher training, motivation, reward, and broader systemic issues, teacher time
constraints, and curricular issues (Bednarz and Ludwig 1997, Bednarz 1999).

Once teachers know how to use GIS themselves and have access to appropriate hardware and
software, they must devise ways to use the tool with their students. Teaching with GIS is a challenge
for many social studies and science teachers. Designing effective GIS-based learning opportunities
for students requires a new approach to structuring the curriculum, to teaching, and to assessing
student learning. An approach that may be successful in teaching with GIS is problem based
learning. In problem based learning, teachers and students integrate concepts and skills from one or
more disciplines to investigate a problem (Jones, Rasmussen,and Moffitt 1997). Problem based
learning with GIS requires that teachers structure their teaching around a series of 'problems.'
Problems are used to frame, focus, organize, and stimulate learning. Students, working alone or in
small groups, investigate these problems using a variety of research tools and technologies,
particularly GIS. The effect of this kind of instruction on spatial problem solving is unknown.

Research

I recently read an article in Educational Researcher that reflects my ideas about the connection
between theory and practice. Paul Cobb and Janet Bowers summarized the problems they perceive
in translating theoretical tenets directly into instructional prescriptions. The context for their paper is
mathematics education and situated learning theory versus cognitive theory, but their point is salient
here:

          The key point to emphasize in this process is that theoretical constructs evolve in
          response to problems and issues encountered in the classroom (emphasis added). As a
          consequence, theoretical constructs developed in this way do not stand apart from
          instructional practice, but instead remain grounded in it (Cobb and Bowers 1999, 12)

They argue for research that is based on the activity of experimenting in classrooms. "These
approaches therefore reflect the concerns of the participants in the learning-teaching process rather
than those of a spectator to classroom events" (Cobb and Bowers 1999, 13). I hope that as we talk
about research in and about spatial problem solving we set as a goal improving educational practice.
This means engaging in classroom based research in collaboration with teachers.
 

References

Bednarz, Sarah Witham. 1999. Impact and success: Evaluation of the GIS Institute for Teachers.
Proceedings, ESRI User Conference, San Diego, CA, July 1999.

Bednarz, S.W. and G. Ludwig. 1997. Ten things higher education needs to know about GIS in primary
and secondary education. Transactions in GIS 2:123-136.

Cobb, P. and J. Bowers. 1999. Cognitive and situated learning perspectives in theory and practice.
Educational Researcher 28(2):5-15.

Geography Education Standards Project. 1994. Geography for Life: National Geography Standards.
Washington D.C.: National Geographic Research and Exploration.

Jones, B.F., C.M. Rasmussen, and M.C. Moffitt. 1997. Real life problem solving. Washington, D.C:
American Psychological Association.

Keiper. T.A. 1999. Gis for elementary students: An inquiry into a new approach to learn geography.
Journal of Geography 98(2):47-59.

Kerski, J. and S. Wanner. 1999. The effectiveness of GIS in high school education. Proceedings, ESRI
User Conference, San Diego, CA, July 1999.