NCGIA Research Initiatives
[Leader: Michael
Goodchild (Santa Barbara) - begun December 1988, closed October 1990]
This initiative focused upon methods and techniques for dealing with
error and uncertainty in geographical data. Such a concern for error
and uncertainty has characterized spatial analysis for the last 30
years but it has become critical as models and techniques begin to be
applied fairly extensively in professional work often through the
vehicle of GIS. The major goals of this initiative, as initially
defined through the specialist meeting with which it began, were to
improve models of uncertainty, to develop methods for tracking and
encoding errors in databases, to formulate methods of computing and
communicating error in GIS products, and to develop policies that
encourage the implementation of accuracy assessment. In particular,
the initiative concentrated on seven key areas which were supported
within the Center and without by graduate and faculty research. These
areas involved: data structures and models, particularly those
involving new methods of data resolution and transformation; models of
error and distortion using modeling and simulation; error propagation,
product uncertainty and sensitivity; accuracy and risk; experimentation
and measurement; interpolation and surface modeling; aggregation,
disaggregation and the modifiable areal unit problem.
Initiative 2: Languages of Spatial Relations [Co-Leaders: David Mark
(Buffalo) and Andrew Frank (Maine) - begun January 1989, closed October
1990]
This initiative had as its broad aim the development of an appropriate
fundamental theory of spatial relations using natural language and
mathematics, based on the formalization of geometric concepts as they
are used in GIS and the cognitive aspects of spatial relations. There
were twelve related areas which emerged as directions for research from
the specialist meeting. These were: computational models of locative
expressions; driving directions and narrative theory as a basis for
assessing spatial orientation and perception; acquisition and the
representation of spatial knowledge; vehicle navigation aid systems;
user interfaces for GIS (which became an initiative in its own right
during the life of this initiative); metaphors for user interfaces;
visualization of spatial information (once again an initiative in its
own right); algebras of space and morphisms between spaces; formal
definitions of topological relations; metrical relationships; and
qualitative reasoning about space and query languages.
Initiative 3: Multiple Representations [Leader: Barbara Buttenfield
(Buffalo) - begun February 1989, closed October 1990]
Many databases must include multiple representations of the same field,
feature or object so that the data can be generalized at different
spatial scales. Of central importance is the need to organize multiple
topological and metrical versions of the same data for efficient
access, and the implementation of linkages between multiple
representations. Rules to ensure consistency and accuracy in
cartographic and other forms of generalization are thus central to this
research quest. There are five areas which were defined for research
from the specialist meeting and these were: data models; linkages
between multiple representations; maintenance of materialized views;
spatial modeling issues; generalization issues; and problems posed by
multi-agency, multi-scale demands for and of data.
Initiative 4: The Use and Value of Geographic Information [Co-Leaders:
Harlan Onsrud (Maine) and Hugh Calkins (Buffalo) - begun May 1989,
closed April 1992]
Goals of this initiative were to improve models for tracking the use of
geographic information, to expand methods for assessing the value and
benefits of geographic information, to formulate methods for better
understanding the factors and processes affecting acquisition,
implementation, and utilization of geographic information innovations,
and to advance methods for modeling the diffusion of geographic
information technologies. Several tracer studies and a nationwide
survey of local government GIS users were analyzed to identify the
critical factors and processes for the class of users tested, to
formulate a model of adoption success, and to test the efficacy of the
theoretical framework in evaluating the use and value of geographic
information innovations. Another research team had postulated that a
realistic determination of the economic value of geographic
information can most readily be accomplished through a better
understanding of the use of the information and the factors which
influence the ability of decision makers to use the information.
Through in-depth case studies, their intent was to develop a use model
framework to which quantitative value measures may be more
realistically attached.
Initiative 5: Architecture of Very Large Spatial Databases
[Co-Leaders: Terence Smith (Santa Barbara) and Andrew Frank (Maine) -
begun July 1989, closed August 1992]
This initiative focused on the set of problems posed by very large
spatial databases, particularly those anticipated to become available
in the 1990s such as those from the EOS program of the NASA. Rates of
data generation were becoming far greater than were the current
capabilities for their processing and thus the effective processing,
storage, manipulation and analysis of such datasets would require
radically new approaches to data models, structures, algorithms and
user interfaces. Ten themes for research were identified from this
initiative and these involved: spatial algebras underlying new
approaches to spatial databases; managing changes in such databases in
terms of propagation and transactions management; parameterized models
of such data; logic based query and manipulation languages; constraint
satisfaction for dataset search; metadata content and organization;
lineage data; browsing capabilities; data compression; and tiling
schemes. The initiative involved an active program of research through
graduate student dissertations at both sites.
Initiative 6: Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS)
[Co-Leaders: Paul Densham (Buffalo) and Michael Goodchild (Santa
Barbara) - begun March 1990, closed April 1993]
This initiative examined the possible role of GISs and associated
techniques in the decision-making process, emphasizing the notion that
GISs only provide rudimentary support for decision-making and that more
sophisticated methods of decision support are required. Four research
themes emerged from the specialist meeting namely: optimal schema for
decision support in areas of ill-defined problem-solving; modeling and
data requirements for SDSS; technology and the implementation of SDSS;
and user requirements and organizational issues. The issues defined
involve a wide range of application areas although the research domains
discussed at the specialist meeting were narrowed to marketing,
retailing, location theory, and socioeconomic models.
Initiative 7: Visualizing the Quality of Spatial Information
[Co-Leaders: Kate Beard (Maine) and Barbara Buttenfield (Buffalo) -
begun June 1991, closed November 1993]
The quality of spatial data and databases is a major concern for
developers and users of GIS. All information which is subject to
display in GIS, from bedrock geology to cancer statistics and market
data, can be characterized in terms of its quality which may vary with
location and with the domain of measured variables. The quality of
spatial information products is multidimensional, and relates to
accuracy, precision, consistency, currency and completeness. The goal
in this research initiative was to focus on effective means of managing
and visually communicating components of data quality to researchers,
decision-makers, and users of spatial information, particularly in the
context of GIS. Four themes were identified for the specialist
meeting: data quality components (error modeling and derivation of
indices of data quality); data models and database issues (management
of data quality within databases during manipulation and update);
representational issues (visual tools to facilitate internal
representation and graphical display); and evaluation of user needs
(assessment of the tools and algorithms, and analysis of user demands
for data quality information).
Initiative 8: Formalizing Cartographic Knowledge [Leader: Barbara
Buttenfield (Buffalo) - begun October 1993]
The goal of this initiative is to identify and pursue research needs in
automated map compilation, generalization and production. Particular
emphasis should be put on a broad area or specific problem domain where
knowledge representation or formalizing rules and criteria will improve
the efficiency, accuracy, or consistency of digital cartographic data,
cartographic representation or cartometric analysis. Issues of
cartographic data exchange and data compression may also be relevant.
The objectives of this initiative, as determined in the specialist
meeting, are: formalizing a cartographic language (definition of
terms/elements, labels for transformations, and knowledge
representations for design and manipulation); formalizing evaluation of
design (measures of efficiency/accuracy, modeling communication);
knowledge acquisition/elicitation (modeling users knowledge, acquiring
knowledge from redesigned user interfaces, new methods to elicit
knowledge, reverse engineering and inventory of maps and industrial
mapping specifications);and structuring/modeling knowledge (embedding
knowledge in data models, exploring promising representations for
knowledge, applying complex operators to novel data structures, and
developing mechanisms to guide use of knowledge, metaknowledge, and
data structures for efficient update).
Initiative 9: Institutions Sharing Geographic Information [Co-Leaders:
Harlan Onsrud (Maine) and Gerard Rushton (San Diego State) - begun
February 1992]
Geographic information is used to satisfy many needs. These include
the needs of those who make location-related decisions (i.e. all levels
of government and the private sector), scientists and educators.
Often, satisfaction of these needs requires knowledge of and access to
data and information held by others. This initiative is organized
around the issues and problems of sharing geographic information and
the technologies which enable this sharing to be made more effective.
The three primary components of the research framework include:
theories of individual and organizational behavior (particularly their
relevance in understanding impediments and incentives to the sharing of
information); the arenas among which sharing of spatial data occurs,
could occur, or could be enhanced; and observations of the process of
spatial data sharing in existing settings. Ultimately, these three
components must be brought together to produce models of behavior in
regard to spatial data sharing. These results, in turn, should be
useful in developing normative proposals for successful spatial data
sharing in specific situations.
Initiative 10: Spatio-Temporal Reasoning in GIS [Co-leaders: Max
Egenhofer (Maine) and Reginald Golledge (Santa Barbara) - begun May
1993]
This initiative concentrates on geographic space, time, and change
related to bounded objects in geographic space. Its overall goal is to
increase our understanding of reasoning processes that apply to
geographic space and time. It builds on efforts of behavioral
geography, cognitive science, and environmental psychology and we plan
to expand them in a strongly computation l (i.e. formalized) framework.
The objectives of this initiative are to: study spatial applications
to identify properties of different time concepts such as continuous,
discrete, monotonic, and cyclic; explore alternative mathematical
formalizations to Cartesian coordinates and Euclidean geometry, which
represent spatial and temporal reasoning processes better; formalize
human reasoning processes about geographic space and time; build
computational frameworks, within which geographic phenomena and
processes and their temporal changes, can be simulated; examine
computational reasoning methods with observations from human subject
experiments about human spatial and temporal perception and cognition.
Initiative 12: Integration of Remote Sensing and GIS [Co-Leaders:
John Estes, Frank Davis and Jeffrey Star (all at Santa Barbara) - begun
December 1990, closed 1993]
Remotely sensed images continue to offer a cost effective and popular
source of data for GISs. At the same time, GIS data is increasingly
used as a means of improving image classification. The objectives of
this initiative were to identify impediments to the fuller integration
of remote sensing and GIS, to develop a prioritized research agenda to
remove these impediments, and to conduct or facilitate research on
topics of highest priority. Discussion at the specialist meeting was
concentrated around five issues: institutional issues; data structures
and access; data processing flow; error analysis; and future computing
environments. Research is involved several specific topics, including
error propagation during raster/vector conversions, improved methods
for registration of multitemporal AVHRR imagery, spatial analysis of
multiscale map and image data, and use of ground, map and image data in
mesoscale land surface climatological models.
Initiative 13: User Interfaces for Geographic Information Systems
[Co-Leaders: David Mark (Buffalo) and Andrew Frank (Maine) - begun
June 1991, closed March 1994]
This initiative addressed human-computer interaction methods and
related issues in the design and implementation of user interfaces for
GIS and other geographical software. This initiative was introduced
partly in response to the URISA research agenda, and partly as a
natural outgrowth of the applied side of Initiative 2 ('Languages of
Spatial Relations'). Specifically, cognitive and linguistic models
dealing with geographic space were formalized and further developed in
order to provide a sound basis for the design and evaluation of user
interfaces. The research initiative had as its broad goals: to
investigate ways for people to interact with computers when solving
problems concerning geographic space and spatial phenomena; to model
some of the ways in which disciplinary background and training, problem
domain, culture, natural language and individual differences influence
such interaction; to establish criteria and methods for the design of
user interfaces for geographic software; and to devise and test
prototype interface development tools.
Initiative 14: Geographical Analysis and GIS I: Spatial Analysis
[Co-leaders: Stewart Fotheringham and Peter Rogerson (both at Buffalo)
- begun April 1992, closed June 1994]
There is an increasing demand for GISs to include the ability to
analyze the spatial data which they store and display. However,
traditional forms of statistical analysis are often unsuitable for
spatial applications, or are not easily generalizable to the spatial
domain. Space, being more than unidimensional, creates a unique set
of problems and impediments to the analyst. This initiative focused
upon the statistical analysis of geographic data. In addition to
specific spatial statistical techniques (such as point pattern analysis
and spatial regression analysis), the initiative also focused upon
spatial statistical problems of a general nature. Examples of these
more general problems include the effects of geographic boundaries and
geographic scale on parameter estimation, the problems associated with
spatial sampling and spatial interpolation, and the relationship
between GIS data structures and the computation of spatial statistics.
Initiative 15: Multiple Roles for GIS
in US Global Change Research
[Co-leaders: John Estes and Michael Goodchild (Santa Barbara), Kate
Beard (Maine), and Tim Foresman (University of Maryland) - begun March
1995]
GIS and related technologies can play an increasingly important role in
global change research. In particular, GIS is seen as a vehicle for
collecting, manipulating, and preprocessing data for models; for
integrating data from disparate sources with potentially different data
models, spatial and temporal resolutions, and definitions; for
monitoring global change at a range of scales; and for visual
presentation of the results of modeling in a policy supportive,
decision-making environment. The research under this initiative will
contribute to the development of a comprehensive, quantitative
understanding of global change through enhanced use of GIS and spatial
data analysis. Its major scientific objectives are: to identify
technical impediments and problems that obstruct our use of GIS in
global change research and our understanding of interactions between
human systems and regional and global environmental systems; to develop
methods for dynamically linking human and physical databases within a
GIS and for exploring the regional impacts of global change; to develop
theoretical/computational structures capable of building up from
knowledge at smaller spatial scales and lower levels of aggregation; to
assess critically the quality of existing global data in terms of
spatially varying accuracy, sampling methodologies, and completeness of
coverage, and develop improved methods for analysis and visualization
of such data.
Initiative
16: Law, Information Policy and Spatial Databases
[Co-leaders: Harlan Onsrud (Maine) and Robert Reis (Buffalo) - begun
October 1994]
Geographic information systems (GIS) and their associated databases are
significant technological advances substantially affecting the
operation of government and business. Current handling of GIS data is
raising numerous questions regarding the bounds of appropriate use of
such data. Because of the great value of digital spatial data, its
potential for altering government's relationships with citizens, and
its potential for intrusiveness, concerns over the handling of digital
spatial data will be substantial factors in society's reconciliation of
competing social, economic, and political interests in electronic data
generally. The major scientific objectives of this initiative are to
advance scientific understanding of the law and information policy
within spatial database environments; raise the quality and content of
the debate about law and GIS by identifying issues in concrete terms
with a high degree of specificity; observe the law in action in order
to explore the affect of large-scale, interconnected, and readily
accessible spatial databases on public information policy and law;
identify emerging problems at the interface of law, information policy,
and spatial databases in order to address those problems prospectively;
and divulge, test and contribute knowledge useful in the improvement of
public policy and formulation of law with respect to the use of spatial
databases and related technologies.
Initiative 17:
Collaborative Spatial Decision Making
[Co-leaders: Paul Densham (London), Marc Armstrong (Univ. of Iowa) and
Karen Kemp (Santa Barbara) - begun September 1995]
Many spatial problems are intrinsically complex and require an
interdisciplinary approach to their solution. Consequently, individuals
often collaborate on developing solutions to these problems, working as
members of a committee or task force. It is in supporting this
collaboration that existing spatial decision support systems are
weakest: they are not designed explicitly to provide tools that enable
groups to develop and evaluate alternative solutions to complex spatial
problems. The purpose of this initiative, therefore, is to extend
current conceptual frameworks for spatial decision support systems (SDSS)
to help groups of decision-makers generate tractable solutions to
ill-defined spatial problems. A specific point of emphasis will be
placed on integrating SDSS with new computer supported cooperative work
(CSCW) environments. Such environments enable groups of people to work
together by providing a set of generic tools that handle many of the
tasks that are required of group enterprises: exchange of textual,
numerical and graphical information; and group evaluation, consensus
building and voting.
[Co-leaders: Trevor Harris and Daniel Weiner (both of West Virginia
University) - begun March, 1996]
The primary objective of this initiative is to develop and support
research in which GIS developers and practitioners on the one hand, and
critics and social theorists concerned with the nature of GIS use on the
other hand, can work together. It is in this context that this
initiative is concerned with three broad research themes involving GIS
production and use. These are: the administration and control of
populations; locational conflict involving disadvantaged populations;
and, the political ecology of natural resource access and use. The
central goals of the initiative are to: examine how data availability and
visualization techniques influence the ways in which natural resources
and society are represented in GIS; examine what limits to representation
may be intrinsic to the logic of GIS; determine how the representations
of environment and society in GIS influence the questions posed, and
solutions proposed in practical applications; determine whether and how
the knowledge, views, and needs of those affected by the application of
GIS can be represented adequately in conflictual social situations where
GIS is used as a decision-making tool; examine to what degree new
functionalities of GIS may allow the limits of current representations to
be extended; investigate the degree to which the application of GIS can
be democratized by placing the technology in the hands of a broader
spectrum of society; and, investigate (drawing on Initiative 16: Law,
Public Policy and Spatial Data Bases) the ethical and legal implications
of related activities.
[Co-Leaders: Max Egenhofer (Maine) and Mike Goodchild (Santa Barbara)]
The advent of an open software design philosophy dramatically changes the
way GIS software is designed and provides new opportunities for users
for integrated analyses. The objectives of this proposed initiative
are to define different alternative GIS architectures that would allow
for open, distributed access to geographic information; develop new
methods (in addition to data exchange standards and current metadata
approaches) that will better capture the semantic and
linguistic/cultural particularities of geographic information in order
to publish, share, and integrate geographic data; design abstract,
high-level spatial data models and process models suitable for a wide
range of application domains; model the process of search for
geographic data and processes and define metrics for assessing fitness
of use; develop a benchmark for current systems with respect to
usability and level of semantic gaps; investigate the fundamental
granularity of geographic data; and examine how an open GIS
architecture will make the use of GISs easier for scientists.
[Co-Leaders: David Mark (Buffalo) and Max Egenhofer (Maine) - to begin
October 1996]
The objective of this initiative is to formalize the body of knowledge
that people have about their surrounding geographic worlds. Formalization
of such a 'Naive Geography' will contribute both to theoretical geography
and to geographic information science. The work also will provide the
basis for designing future GIS that follow human intuition more closely,
and thus will be more easily accessible to the large range of users that
are expected to use GIS in their homes, automobiles, and offices in the
information age. The preliminary objectives of Initiative 21 are 1) to
identify basic elements of common-sense conceptualizations of geographic
space, entities, and processes, and develop an integrating framework; and
2) to investigate GIS users' reactions to intuitive geographic
inferences, and compare inferences with the results obtained with current
GIS technology. These two objectives will be mutually supportive only if
they are closely integrated to ensure that mathematically sound models
are tested, and that results from tests are brought back to refine the
models. If GISs can achieve geographic reasoning in a manner similar to a
human expert, these systems will be much more valuable tools for a large
range of users, such as family members planning their upcoming vacation
trip, scientists analyzing their data collections, or business people
investigating how their organizations have performed in various
geographic markets.