NCGIA Core Curriculum in Geographic Information Science

This unit is part of the NCGIA Core Curriculum in Geographic Information Science. These materials may be used for study, research, and education, but please credit the author Kenneth E. Foote, and the project, NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIScience. All commercial rights reserved. Copyright 1998.

Your comments on these materials are welcome. A link to an evaluation form is provided at the end of this document.

Unit Topics

• Five topics are highlighted in this section:
• Unit 013 - Coordinate Systems Overview, by Peter Dana
• Unit 014 - Latitude and Longitude, by Anthony Kirvan
• Unit 015 - The Shape of the Earth, by Peter Dana
• Unit 016 - Discrete Georeferencing, by David Cowen
• Unit 017 - Global Positioning Systems Overview, by Peter Dana
• These cover topics that are fundamental to understanding the systems of locational reference used in GIS.
• The units have been written as overviews, but additional references and materials are provided for instructors wishing to extend their presentations of these important topics.

Intended Learning Outcomes of this Section

• Determine location and calculate distances using global coordinate systems (latitude-longitude and UTM).
• Determine location and calculate distances in the local coordinate system employed most commonly in the student's state, region, or nation.
• Understand why different coordinate systems have been developed to record location.
• Select a coordinate system suited to a particular GIS project.
• Explain how the shape of the earth is related to geographic position and to the measurement of distance.
• Understand how geographic coordinates can be assigned to street address and postal codes using discrete georeferencing.
• Identify the difficulties and errors that arise in discrete geocoding.
• Explain how a GPS receiver computes position and time from GPS signals and list major types of error.
• State the methodological differences between single-user and differential GPS.
• Describe the practical differences between using GPS for low-precision and high-precision positioning.
• See also the detailed learning outcomes listed below by unit.

Metadata and Revision History

1. The Importance of Position

• Accurate referencing of geographic location is fundamental to all GIS.
• The management, analysis, and reporting of all GIS data requires that it be carefully referenced by position on the Earth's surface.
• Mispositioned data can disrupt and even invalidate a GIS dataset and all modeling based upon that dataset.
• Many different coordinate systems are used to record location.
• Some systems such as latitude and longitude are global systems that can be used to record position anywhere on the Earth's surface.
• Other systems are regional or local in coverage and intended to provide accurate positioning over smaller areas.
• Position is sometimes recorded in other ways, for instance by using postal codes and cadastral reference systems.
• The system of locational reference used in a particular GIS project will depend on the purpose of the project and how the positions of the source data have been recorded.
• It is sometimes the case that the data needed for a particular GIS project will be recorded in two or more of these reference systems.
• Combining the information of these sources will require that positions be carefully converted, transformed, or projected from one system to another.
• This is a reason why GIS practitioners must usually be familiar with a variety of commonly used coordinate systems.
• Geographic position is related to the shape of the Earth.
• This shape is not a perfect sphere but rather an irregular ellipsoid.
• Positions are sometimes reported in spherical units, but are more commonly are adjusted to account for Earth shape using what are called geodetic datums.
• Spherical distances and measurements differ from those that use geodetic datums to adjust for Earth shape.
• Accurate positioning requires knowledge of the datum used to construct a given coordinate system.
• Transforming locations from one coordinate system to another will often also require shifting datums as well.
• Phenomena whose positions are recorded by street address or postal code can also referenced using geographic coordinates.
• The process of matching street addresses and postal codes to geographic coordinate systems is called discrete georeferencing.
• Precise positioning of natural and human phenomena can be a very demanding task.
• The level of precision with which position is recorded in a GIS dataset will vary from project to project.
• Some engineering applications demand centimeter precision, some demographic and marketing applications require much lower precision to accomplish their objectives.
• High precision positioning usually requires the use of staff well trained in surveying, geodesy, and photogrammetry.
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is now used routinely for both low-precision and high-precision positioning.
• Low-precision GPS positioning can be attained by users with little knowledge of the underlying GPS technology and inexpensive equipment.
• High-precision GPS positioning requires both a thorough knowledge of the technology and more specialized equipment.

2. Overview of the Section Units

• The units are intended to provide an overview to the most important issues in determining position.
• These overviews still contain much technical information.
• Lecturing from these units may occasionally require studying some of the reference materials.
• Instructors are encouraged to adapt these materials to their audiences.
• Students often benefit from having these topics explained using local examples.
• Students often benefit from exercises and activities that require them to practice using different coordinate systems.
• Instructors may find it useful to teach these units in conjunction with those on map projections and on uncertainty in spatial databases.
• The contents and interrelationships of the units in this section are described below.

2.1. Unit 013 - Coordinate Systems Overview

• This unit provides an overview of coordinate systems used for georeferencing, including:
• A description of basic coordinate systems
• A description of the shape of the Earth
• Some examples of global and regional systems used for precise positioning, navigation, and geographic information systems
• The overview discusses the rationale behind these systems and how they are used
• After learning the material covered in this unit, students should be able to:
• List the major global georeferencing systems
• Explain how the UTM georeferencing system is organized
• Locate a given local landmark in three or more global or regional coordinate systems
• Express the location of the student's home in UTM and one regional coordinate system
• Identify the georeferencing system used most widely in the student's locality.
• Differentiate between different global systems of georeferencing including UTM, MGRS, and GEOREF systems.
• Collect examples of regional and local coordinate systems employed by nations or states not mentioned in the text.
• Find and plot one example of a metes-and-bounds survey
• Plan a regional GIS project that spans two or more UTM or SPC zones.

2.2. Unit 014 - Latitude and Longitude

• This unit focuses on the most widely used global reference system, latitude and longitude.
• It defines, explains, and illustrates:
• Earth rotation, the North and South Poles, and the Equator
• Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude
• Determination of north or south position with latitude
• The use of longitude to determine east or west position
• The measurement of latitude and longitude with degrees, minutes, and seconds
• After learning the material covered in this unit, students should gain an appreciation for:
• The relationship between plane and earth coordinate geometries
• The importance of the earth's rotation and poles to measurement and point location
• The use of latitude and longitude to determine locations on the earth's surface
• The differences and relationships between latitude and longitude
• Using latitude and longitude to measure distances

2.3. Unit 015 - The Shape of the Earth

• This unit focuses on the shape of the Earth, and how this shape is related to location.
• The unit provides an overview of the following concepts:
• Geodetic datums
• Geometric Earth models
• Reference ellipsoids
• Earth surfaces
• After learning the material covered in this unit, students should gain an appreciation for:
• The various methods of describing the size and shape of the earth
• The evolution of a flat earth model into an accurate spherical representation.

2.4. Unit 016 - Discrete Georeferencing

• GIS often must assign geographic coordinates to data recorded by street address or postal code using discrete georeferencing.
• This unit provides an overview of discrete georeferencing, including:
• Description of how georeferencing is used to create GIS databases
• Applications that rely on georeferencing
• The level of geographic resolution possible for various alternatives of georeferencing
• Sources of base maps for georeferencing
• Software for georeferencing address files
• Problems associated with handling addresses
• Internet resources for georeferencing
• After learning the material covered in this unit, students should understand:
• The importance of georeferencing as a way to create GIS databases
• The limitations of the approach and the benefits of certain alternatives
• The mechanics of how to use GIS software to perform georeferencing tasks
• Sources of software and data for performing geocoding operations

2.5. Unit 017 - Global Positioning Systems Overview

• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is now widely used for both low-precision and high-precision positioning.
• This unit provides an overview of the GPS including:
• A description of the space, control and user components of the system.
• A description of the basic services provided by GPS.
• A discussion of position and time determination from GPS signals.
• A discussion of GPS error sources and methods for overcoming some GPS errors.
• The overview discusses GPS project planning and costs.
• The overview does not discuss details of GPS signals and data formats, but does provide references to relevant sources.
• After learning the material covered in this unit, students should be able to:
• List the major GPS segments as defined by the Department of Defense.
• Explain how a GPS receiver computes position and time from GPS signals.
• Describe the major error sources for GPS positioning projects.
• Explain the various forms of Differential GPS.
• Propose suitable equipment and processes for various levels of positioning accuracy.